G!FT  OF 


01 


GEOLOGY; 


FOR 


,  Classes,  rah  |)ntait  Stohnts, 


BY 

SA1STBORN   TENNEY,   A.M., 

LECTURER  ON  PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  AND  NATURAL  HISTORY,  IN  THE  MASSACHUSETTS 
TEACHERS'  INSTITUTES. 


ILLUSTRATED  WITH 


SSfoob  (Shtgrafrhtcjs. 


"  In  onc.word,  all  these  f^cts  in  their  natural  csnnei-tiou  proclaim*»loud  the  One  God, 
•rhota  man  may  know,  adore,  and  UTve.'V  &*ay  on  (HQ&U/jg*&^  bjr  L.  AOASSIZ. 


PHILADELPHIA : 
PUBLISHED  BY  E.  H.  BUTLER  &  CO. 

1860. 


Entered,  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1859,  by 

SANBORN  TENNEY, 
in  the  Clerk's  Office  of  the  District  Court  of  the  District  of  Massachusetts. 


THIS    VOLUME 

is 

RESPECTFULLY    DEDICATED 
TO 


BY 

THEIR  FRIEND  AND  FELLOW-LABORER, 
THE    AUTHOR. 


339655 


PREFACE. 


THIS  volume  is  designed  to  present,  in  a  clear  man- 
ner, the  leading  facts  and  principles  of  Geology.  As 
its  title  indicates,  it  is  not  only  intended  to  prepare 
the  Teacher  to  give  oral  instruction  upon  this  impor- 
tant subject,  but  is  especially  adapted  for  a  Text- 
Book  in  our  -Common  and  High  Schools,  Normal 
Schools,  Academies,  and  other  Seminaries:  it  is  be- 
lieved that  it  will  also  be  useful  to  the  general 
reader.  , 

It  will  be  found  wider  in  its  range  than  most  works 
bearing  the  title  Geology;  inasmuch  as  it  describes 
all  the  common  Minerals,  and  puts  the  reader  in 
possession  of  the  most  important  facts  about  the 
Vegetable  and  the  Animal  Kingdom, — yet  all  tribu- 
tary to  the  general  subject. 

1*  (5) 


Yi  PKEFACE. 

The  book  contains  within  itself  all  that  is  neces- 
sary to  make  it  entirely  intelligible.  It  does  not  pre- 
suppose a  knowledge  of  any  of  the  subjects  of  jwhich 
it  treats. 

The  facts  have  been  drawn  from,  the  whole  domain 
of  science.  Appropriate  reference  and  due  acknow- 
ledgment, however,  are  made  in  the  body  of  the  work, 
to  those  eminent  authors  whose  writings  have  been 
especially  consulted. 

A  large  number  of  the  wood-cut  illustrations  have 
been  drawn  from  Nature ;  the  others  have  been  copied 
mainly  from  the  Geological  Eeports  of  the  different 
States.  "With  few  exceptions,  all  the  subjects  repre- 
sented are  common  in  this  country. 

In  the  preparation  of  this  volume,  the  author  has 
received  great  encouragement,  both  from  his  personal 
friends,  and  from  teachers  generally;  for  which  he 
now  returns  his  sincere  thanks. 

He  wishes  to  express  his  particular  obligations  to 
Professors  Agassiz  and  Guyot,  for  the  kind  interest 
they  have  manifested  in  this  undertaking,  and  for  the 
great  aid  they  have  given  by  their  valuable  sug- 
gestions. Nor  would  he  forget  the  favors  received 
from  Dr.  D.  F.  Weinland,  H.  James  Clark,  Esq.,  and 
F.  W.  Putnam,  Esq. 


PREFACE.  Vii' 

lie  desires  also  to  return  his  thanks  to  the  Hon. 
George  S.  Boutwell,  Professor  William  Russell,  George 
B.  Emerson,  LL.D.,  Professors  Alpheus  Crosby. 
Marshall  Conant,  Hermann  Kriisi,  the  Rev.  B.  G. 
Northrop,  Thomas  D.  Adams,  Esq.,  Professors  "VV.  F. 
Phelps,  and  A.  J.  Robinson, — from  all  of  whom  he 
has  received  special  encouragement,  and  important 
suggestions. 

He  would  be  wanting  in  proper  gratitude,  if  he 
failed  to  acknowledge  his  obligations  to  the  Philadel- 
phia Academy  of  Natural  Sciences,  and  especially  to 
the  accomplished  and  courteous  Librarian,  for  free 
access  to  the  Library  of  that  Institution  while  the 
sheets  were  at  press. 

Nor  ought  these  brief  acknowledgments  to  close 
without  an  expression  of  grateful  remembrance  to 
the  Rev.  J.  "W.  Guernsey,  who,  many  years  ago,  first 
turned  the  attention  of  the  author  to  those  great 
subjects  which  he  has  here  endeavored  to  discuss. 

It  is  but  justice  to  state  that  the  plan  of  this 
volume  was  made,  and  the  work  commenced  five 
years  ago ;  that  more  than  a  year  ago  it  was  consid- 
ered ready  for  the  press,  and  notice  given  to  that 
effect.  But  unavoidable  circumstances  have  pre- 
vented its  issue  till  now.  Although  in  the  mean- 


Vlll  PEEFACE. 

time  every  page  lias  been  carefully  revised,  the  plan, 
which,  so  far  as  the  writer  is  informed,  is  different 
from  that  of  any  other  work,  remains  the  same  as  it 
was  at  the  outset. 

That  this  volume  may  tend  to  promote  the  study 
of  Nature,  in  the  right  spirit,  and  thereby  advance 
the  cause  of  popular  education,  is  the  sincere  desire 
of  the  author. 

S.  T. 
OCTOBER,  1859. 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER  I. 

PAGE 

GENERAL  STATEMENT  OF  THE  SUBJECT     ....  13 


CHAPTER  II. 
THE  EARTH  CONSIDERED  AS  A  PLANET 16 

CHAPTER  III. 
CHEMICAL  CONSTITUTION  OF  TIIE  EARTH 20 

CHAPTER  IV. 
MINERAL  CONSTITUTION  OF  THE  EARTH 26 

CHAPTER  V. 
THE  ROCKS  WHICH  COMPOSE  THE  EARTH 65 


CONTEXTS. 

PAGE 

SECTION  I. — Two  GREAT  CLASSES  RECOGNISED    ....       65 

II. — DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  UNSTRATIFIED  ROCKS  .       G8 

III. — DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  STRATIFIED  ROCKS  81 


CHAPTER  VI. 

GENERAL  VIEW  OF  THE  VEGETABLE  AND  THE  ANIMAL  KING- 
DOM,   PREPARATORY    TO    THE    STUDY    OF    THE    REMAINS    OF 

PLANTS  AND  ANIMALS  IN  THE  ROCKS 91 

SECTION  I. — THE  VEGETABLE  KINGDOM 91 

II. — THE  ANIMAL  KINGDOM 102 

CHAPTER  VII. 

FOSSILS,  AND  CLASSIFICATION  OF  THE  ROCK  FORMATIONS    .     .  132 

SECTION  I. — FOSSILS 132 

II. — CLASSIFICATION  OF  THE  ROCK  FORMATIONS  139 

CHAPTER  VIII. 

BRIEF  DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  SEVERAL  SYSTEMS  OF  FOSSILIFER- 

ous  ROCKS .' 143 

SECTION  I. — SILURIAN  SYSTEM 143 

II. — OLD  RED  SANDSTONE  SYSTEM 150 

III. — CARBONIFEROUS  SYSTEM 155 

IV. — NEW  RED  SANDSTONE  SYSTEM       .     .     .     .  1G9 

V. — OOLITIC  SYSTEM 175 

VI. — CRETACEOUS  SYSTEM 181 

VII.— TERTIARY  SYSTEM       185 

VIII.— DRIFT 192 

IX.— ALLUVIUM  £02 


.-.      CONTENTS.  XI 

CHAPTER  IX. 

PAGE 

GEOLOGICAL  CHANGES  NOW  GOING  ON,  AND  THE  AGENCIES  BY 

WHICH  THEY  ARE  PRODUCED 216 

SECTION  I. — AQUEOUS  AGENCIES 217 

II. — IGNEOUS  AGENCIES 239 

III. — ORGANIC  AGENCIES 258 

CHAPTER  X. 

CONCLUDING  REMARKS 2G8 

GLOSSARY 283 

INDEX   ,  313 


GEOLOGY. 

CHAPTER  I. 

GENERAL  STATEMENT  OF  THE  SUBJECT. 

GEOLOGY  is  the  science  which  treats  of  the  earth. 
Everything  which  relates  to  the  physical  condition  of 
our  planet,  may  come  within  its  domain.  Its  special 
province,  however,  is  the  investigation  of  the  rock 
formations  of  the  earth,  their  constitution  and  arrange- 
ment, and  the  changes  they  are  undergoing,  and  have 
undergone  in  past  ages. 

Geology  does  not  attempt  to  explain  the  origin  of 
the  earth,  but,  recognising  it  as  the  handiwork  of  a 
Divine  Creator,  seeks  only  to  investigate  its  present 
condition  and  past  history. 

The  facts  of  this  science  are  obtained  by  a  careful 
examination  of  everything  which  forms  a  part  of  the 
accessible  matter  of  the  globe, — loam,  clay,  sand, 
gravel,  and  boulders,  as  well  as  the  solid  rocks,  and 
their  organic  contents. 

2  (13) 


14l        ••  ^V     >??    GEXEKAL    STATEMENT. 

%">"»-»        V"*  •<         **      3  "*  •« 

Chemistry  treats  of  the  elements  of  matter,  tlieir 
properties,  and  laws  of  combination. 

Mineralogy  describes  the  separate  minerals  which 
compose  the  earth. 

Botany  is  the  scientilic  examination  of  the  various 
forms  of  vegetable  life. 

Zoology  treats  of  the  animal  kingdom. 

In  geological  investigations  it  is  necessary  to  refer 
to  all  these  branches  of  science. 

Until  a  comparatively  recent  period,  it  was  a  very 
common  impression,  that  the  rocky  strata  were  created 
in  their  present  form  and  position ;  but  geology  teaches 
that  they  have  undergone  many  changes,  the  proofs 
of  which  exist  in  the  rocks  themselves.  We  find 
abundant  evidence  that  the  physical  condition  of  the 
earth  has  been  widely  different  at  different  epochs,  and 
that  many  successive  races  of  animals  and  plants  have 
flourished  on  its  surface,  differing  from  one  another, 
and  from  those  now  living. 

Geology  not  only  teaches  much  that  is  instructive 
and  interesting,  concerning  the  past  history  of  the 
earth,  but  it  also  gives  important  information  in  regard 
to  the  rocks  and  minerals  of  practical  use  to  man ;  as 
the  experienced  geologist  can  decide,  with  a  good 
degree  of  accuracy,  whether  certain  substances  may, 
or  may  not,  be  found  in  a  given  region. 

As  an  educational  branch,  Geology  especially  claims 
our  attention.  Its  study  is  calculated  to  enlarge  and 


GENERAL    STATEMENT.  15 

ennoble  all  the  faculties  of  the  mind.  Nature  and 
Revelation  are  man's  great  teachers — both  are  indis- 
pensable for  his  perfect  mental  and  moral  develop- 
ment. 

Therefore,  whether  we  study  geology  for  its  practi- 
cal advantages,  or  for  the  higher  purpose  of  becoming 
acquainted  with  the  great  plan  which  the  Author  of 
Nature  has  made,  and  carried  out,  in  regard  to  our 
earth,  the  subject  becomes  one  of  the  greatest  impor- 
tance and  highest, interest. 


'•" 


CHAPTEE  II. 

THE  EARTH  CONSIDERED  AS  A  PLANET. 

IT  is  an  established  fact  that  the  earth  is  an  oblate 
spheroid,  the  polar  diameter  being  twenty-six  miles 
less  than  the  equatorial ;  which  gives  a  flattening  of 
thirteen  miles  at  each  pole. 

If  a  ball  of  clay,  or  any  yielding  material,  be  re- 
volved rapidly  by  means  of  a  wire  or  rod,  for  an  axis, 
the  revolutions  will  produce  a  difference  between  the 
two  diameters  of  the  ball ; — the  diameter  in  the  direc- 
tion of  the  axis  will  diminish,  while  that  at  right 
angles  to  the  same  will  increase.  This  may  serve  to 
explain  the  present  figure  of  the  earth,  since  it  needs 
only  to  have  been  in  a  soft,  or  yielding  state,  in  order 
to  be  affected  by  revolution,  in  the  same  manner  as 
the  ball  above  mentioned. 

Other  planets  besides  the  earth  exhibit  a  flattening 
at  the  poles,  and  it  is  greatest  upon  those  which  rotate 
with  the  greatest  velocity.  The  earth  rotates  on  its 
axis  at  the  rate  of  about  1000  miles  per  hour,  and 
exhibits  a  difference  between  its  equatorial  and  polar 
diameters  of  a  little  more  than  26  miles ;  while  Jupiter 

(1C) 


THE  EARTH  CONSIDERED  AS  A  PLANET.     17 

rotates  on  its  axis  at  the  rate  of  28,000  miles  an  hour, 
and  its  equatorial  diameter  exceeds  the  polar  by  6000 
miles. 

It  is  estimated  that  the  density  of  the  earth,  taken 
as  a  whole,  is  five  times  as  great  as  that  of  water,  and 
about  two  and  a  half  times  as  great  as  that  of  ordinary 
rocks.  In  other  words,  five  globes  of  water,  of  the 
same  size  as  the  earth,  would  weigh  no  more  than  the 
earth  itself;  and  two  and  a  half  globes  of  ordinary 
rock,  of  the  same  size  as  the  earth,  would  only  equal 
the  weight  of  the  latter.  The  density  of  the  earth, 
then,  must  increase  as  we  go  towards  the  centre.  If 
this  increase  be  regular,  water,  at  the  depth  of  362 
miles,  would  be  as  heavy  as  quicksilver,  and  air,  at  34 
miles,  as  heavy  as  water  at  the  surface;  and  at  the 
centre,  rocks  would  be  compressed  into  one  eighth  of 
their  ordinary  bulk. 

Accustomed  to  regard  the  surface  of  the  earth  as 
very  irregular,  unless  our  ideas  in  regard  to  this  fact  be 
properly  modified,  we  shall  not  so  readily  comprehend 
the  great  movements  which  have  taken  place  in  times 
past.  Given  irregularities  on  a  globe  one  inch  in  di- 
ameter, may  make  it  appear  exceedingly  rough,  while 
the  same  irregularities  would  hardly  be  perceptible  on 
a  globe  one  hundred  feet  in  diameter.  In  proportion  to 
the  size  of  the  two  bodies,  an  orange  is  much  rougher 
than  the  earth.  Taking  the  diameter  of  the  earth  in 
round  numbers  at  8000  miles,  and  the  height  of  the 


18  THE    EARTH    CONSIDERED   AS    A   PLANET. 

highest  mountain  on  its  surface  at  5  miles,  then  the 
elevation  of  the  highest  mountain  compared  with  the 
diameter  of  the  globe,  is  as  1  to  1600 ;  or  the  thick- 
ness of  one  sheet  of  paper  holds  the  same  relation  to 
the  thickness  of  sixteen  hundred  sheets,  as  the  highest 
mountain  to  the  diameter  of  the  globe.  Keeping 
these  facts  in  mind,  the  student  will  better  understand 
the  elevations  and  depressions  of  continents,  the  up- 
lifting of  mountain  ranges,  and  all  the  movements  to 
which  the  earth  is  subject. 

The  temperature  of  the  surface  of  the  earth  depends 
upon  a  variety  of  circumstances ;  differing  in  different 
places,  according  to  distance  from  the  equator,  eleva- 
tion, situation  in  respect  to  the  ocean,  oceanic  currents, 
and  prevailing  winds,  and  according  to  the  radiating 
power  of  the  soil. 

The  sun  does  not  affect  the  temperature  of  the  earth 
below  the  depth  of  100  feet.  But  for  every  45  or  50 
feet  of  descent  below  that  point,  the  temperature  rises 
about  one  degree  Fahrenheit.  If  the  increase  go  on 
at  that  rate,  a  point  would  soon  be  reached  where  the 
heat  is  sufficient  to  melt  all  known  substances. 

It  is  believed  by  most  geologists,  that  the  interior 
of  the  earth  is  in  a  molten  state ;  that  the  whole  earth 
lias  been  in  that  condition ;  and  that  the  crust,  or  solid 
portion,  is  not  more  than  50  or  100  miles  thick.  But 
tli is  theory  will  be  further  considered  in  a  subsequent 
chapter.  At  present,  the  rock  formations,  which  may 


THE    EARTH    CONSIDERED    AS    A    PLANET.  19 

come  under  actual  observation,  will  afford  the  beginner 
in  geological  investigations,  ample  field  for  study.  It 
may  be  remarked  here,  however,  that,  in  his  exami- 
nations of  the  solid  rocks,  the  student  will  constantly 
find  the  effects  of  heat. 


CHAPTEE  III. 

CHEMICAL  CONSTITUTION  OF  THE  EARTH. 

CHEMISTKY  informs  us  that  the  whole  matter  of  our 
globe  is  composed  of  62  or  65  elements.  The,  follow- 
ing list,  divided  into  two  principal  groups,  and  the 
first  into  three  subordinate  ones,  contains  the  names 
of  36  of  those  most  abundant,  and  indicates  their  con- 
dition when  uncombined,  and  at  ordinary  temperatures. 

NON-METALLIC  ELEMENTS  :  Gases — Oxygen,  Hydro- 
gen, Nitrogen,  Chlorine,  Fluorine.  Liquid — Bromine. 
Solid — Iodine,  Carbon,  Sulphur,  Phosphorus,  Silicon, 
Boron. 

METALS  AND  METALLOIDS  :  Potassium,  Sodium,  Cal- 
cium, Barium,  Strontium,  Magnesium,  Aluminium, 
Iron,  Manganese,  Cobalt,  Nickel,  Copper,  Cadmium, 
Bismuth,  Lead,  Tin,  Zinc,  Chromium,  Antimony,  Ar- 
senic, Mercury,  Silver,  Gold,  Platinum. 

Sixteen  of  the  above,  in  various  combinations  and 
proportions,  compose  the  great  bulk  of  the  earth. 
Part  of  the  remainder  form  rare  and  valuable  minerals, 
and  others  are  seldom  found.  The  sixteen  are  as  fol- 
lows:— Oxygen,  Hydrogen,  Nitrogen,  Fluorine,  Chlo- 

(20) 


CHEMICAL    CONSTITUTION   OF   THE   EAETH.         21 

rine,  Carbon,  Sulphur,  Phosphorus,  Silicon,  Alumi- 
nium, Potassium,  Sodium,  Calcium,  Magnesium,  Iron, 
and  Manganese.  Each  of  these  will  now  be  briefly 
noticed,  and  some  of  the  most  important  of  the  others 
will  be  described  in  a  subsequent  chapter. 

OXYGEN  is  the  most  abundant,  and  most  widely  dif- 
fused of  all  the  elements.  It  constitutes  from  one- 
third  to  one-half  of  the  crust  of  the  earth,  forming  a 
portion  of  almost  every  substance.  It  forms,  by 
weight,  one-fifth  of  the  atmosphere,  and  eight-ninths 
of  water. 

This  gas  is  about  one-tenth  heavier  than  common 
air.  One  hundred  cubic  inches  weigh  34i  grains.  It 
is  tasteless,  colorless,  and  inodorous.  It  is  the  great 
supporter  of  animal  life  and  combustion. 

HYDRO  GEN  forms  one-ninth  part  of  water.  This 
gas  is  the  lightest  of  all  known  substances,  weighing 
only  about  one-fourteenth  as  much  as  air.  One  hun- 
dred cubic  inches  weigh  2.14  grains.  It  is  never 
found  free  in  nature.  Hydrogen  is  not  a  supporter 
of  combustion,  but  will  itself  burn  freely.  When 
mixed  with  certain  proportions  of  oxygen,  or  atmo- 
sphere air,  it  forms  a  highly  explosive  and  dangerous 
compound. 

How  wonderful  that  the  sparkling  water  is  but  a 
combination  of  two  colorless,  invisible  gases,  one  of 
which  will  ignite  and  burn,  and  the  other  the  great 
supporter  of  combustion ! 


22          CHEMICAL    CONSTITUTION   OF   THE   EARTH. 

NITROGEN  constitutes  80  per  cent,  of  the  atmosphere, 
and  occurs  in  combinations,  both  in  the  animal  and 
in  the  vegetable  kingdom.  It  is  neither  a  supporter 
of  respiration  nor  combustion.  It  instantly  extin- 
guishes a  lighted  taper,  and  destroys  animal  life ;  and 
yet,  properly  mixed  with  oxygen,  it  forms  the  air  we 
breathe. 

CHLORINE  is  a  green  gas  about  as  heavy  as  air. 
Combined  with  sodium,  it  forms  chloride  of  sodium, 
or  common  salt.  Beds  of  rock-salt  are  common  in 
many  parts  of  the  world.  The  most  extensive  are  in 
Poland,  Hungary,  Austria,  and  the  countries  in  that 
quarter  of  the  world.  In  the  United  States,  salt  is 
obtained  in  immense  quantities  by  evaporating  the 
water  of  salt  springs.  The  springs  of  New  York, 
located  mostly  at  Syracuse  and  vicinity,  yield  annually 
about  6  millions  of  bushels,  and  those  of  Virginia  3J 
millions. 

FLUORINE  occurs  in  combination  with  calcium, 
forming  the  mineral  known  under  the  name  of  fluor 
spar,  which  will  be  noticed  hereafter.  Fluorine,  com- 
bined with  hydrogen,  forms  hydrofluoric  acid,  used 
in  etching  upon  glass. 

CARBON,  in  its  pure  state,  is  a  solid.  It  constitutes 
the  principal  part  of  all  the  varieties  of  mineral  coal, 
which  will  be  noticed  hereafter.  Plumbago,  com- 
monly but  incorrectly  called  Black  Lead,  is  mainly 
carbon,  containing,  besides  this  element,  only  5  or  6 


CHEMICAL    CONSTITUTION    OF   THE    EAKTH.          23 

per  cent,  of  iron.  Plumbago  occurs  in  foliated  masses 
in  the  older  rocks,  such  as  mica-slate  and  gneiss. 
Nelson  and  Washington,  N.  EL,  and  Sturbridge, 
Mass.,  are  among  the  important  localities  in  the 
United  States.  In  England,  the  principal  locality  is 
in  Cumberland.  Plumbago  is  used  for  the  manufac- 
ture of  lead  pencils,  crucibles,  and  for  diminishing 
the  friction  of  machinery.  Bitumen,  in  all  its  varie- 
ties, is  mainly  carbon.  Charcoal  is  almost  pure  car- 
bon, and  the  Diamond  is  pure  crystallized  carbon. 
The  principal  diamond  regions  are  India,  the  Ural 
Mountains,  and  Brazil.  The  diamond  has  been  found 
in  the  United  States  in  Virginia,  North  Carolina,  and 
Georgia. 

Carbon  constitutes  from  25  to  50  per  cent,  of  all 
vegetable  matter.  In  combination  with  oxygen,  it 
forms  carbonic  acid,  a  gas  which  instantly  extinguishes 
a  lighted  taper  if  immersed  in  it,  and  is  fatal  when 
inhaled.  This  gas  is  formed  by  respiration,  by  com- 
bustion, and  by  the  decay  of  all  animal  and  vegetable 
substances.  It  is  often  found  in  old  wells,  and  in 
caves.  It  exists  largely  in  the  waters  of  many  springs, 
especially  those  of  Saratoga.  Carbonic  acid  combines 
with  numerous  substances,  forming  a  class  of  sub- 
stances called  carbonates.  Chalk  and  limestone  are 
carbonates  of  lime. 

SULPHUR  is  a  yellow,  brittle  solid,  occurring  both 
native  and  combined  with  other  substances,  It  is 
found  most  abundantly  in  volcanic  districts.  The 


24         CHEMICAL   CONSTITUTION   OF   THE    EARTH. 

island  of  Sicily  furnishes  a  large  part  of  the  native 
sulphur  of  commerce.  It  is  widely  diffused  in  a  state 
of  combination  with  the  metals,  forming  the  sulphurets 
of  iron,  lead,  copper,  zinc,  &c.  It  comprises  half  the 
weight  of  gypsum,  existing  in  that  substance  as  sul- 
phuric acid,  the  same  being  the  result  of  the  combi- 
nation of  sulphur  and  oxygen. 

Sulphur  occurs  in  many  mineral  waters,  also  in 
plants,  and  sparingly  in  animal  tissues.  It  occurs  in 
eggs,  which,  as  is  well  known,  tarnish  silver.  The 
sulphur  of  the  egg  readily  combines  with  that  metal, 
thus  forming  the  black  sulphuret  of  silver. 

PHOSPHORUS  never  occurs  free  in  nature,  but  is 
quite  abundant  in  combinations.  "With  lime  it  forms 
the  phosphate  of  lime,  which  occiirs  quite  abundantly 
in  the  crust  of  the  earth ;  also  in  the  seeds  of  plants, 
and  in  bones. 

Pure  phosphorus  is  a  transparent  solid,  easily  cut 
at  ordinary  temperature,  and  exhibiting  a  waxy  ap- 
pearance, unless  exposed  to  the  light,  when  it  turns 
yellow,  then  red.  It  possesses  the  property  of  giving 
out  light  in  the  dark,  and  hence  its  name,  which  means 
light-bearer. 

Phosphorus  is  a  violent  poison  and,  except  in  very 
small  quantities,  a  dangerous  substance  to  use ;  for  in 
the  air  it  takes  fire  with  the  slightest  friction,  and 
burns  with  the  greatest  energy.  It  should  be  kept 
and  cut  under  water,  and,  when  taken  out  for  use,v 
should  not  be  touched  with  the  naked  hand. 


CHEMICAL   CONSTITUTION   OF   THE    EAKTH.         25 

SILICON  is  not  found  free,  but  always  combined 
with  oxygen,  forming  silica  or  quartz,  a  mineral  which 
will  be  noticed  in  a  subsequent  chapter. 

ALUMINIUM  occurs  only  in  combinations.  With 
oxygen  it  forms  alumina,  pure  examples  of  which  are 
the  gems  known  under  the  name  of  "  ruby"  and  "  sap- 
phire." Alumina  enters  largely  into  the  composition 
of  feldspar  and  clay. 

Aluminium  is  now  obtained  in  considerable  quanti- 
ties from  cryolite,  a  mineral  from  Greenland,  and  from 
clay.  It  is  a  white  metal,  resembling  silver,  is  very 
light,  and  is  not  tarnished  by  exposure. 

POTASSIUM  is  one  of  the  lightest  of  the  metals.  It 
occurs  only  in  combinations.  With  oxygen  it  forms 
potassa,  or  potash,  which  is  found  in  all  fertile  soils, 
and  in  all  hard- wood  trees,  from  the  ashes  of  which  it 
may  be  readily  obtained. 

SODIUM  forms  more  than  40  parts  in  100  of  common 
salt,  and  occurs  in  various  other  combinations  in  the 
earth's  crust. 

CALCIUM,  always  combined  with  oxygen  in  nature, 
occurs  in  every  variety  of  limestone.  ,  '* 

MAGNESIUM  combined  with  oxygen  forms  magne- 
sia, which  enters  into  the  composition  of  many  rocks 
and  minerals,  as  will  be  seen  in  the  next  chapter. 

IKON  and  MANGANESE  will  be  considered  in   the 
next  chapter. 
3 


CHAPTER  IY. 

MINERAL  CONSTITUTION  OF  THE  EARTH. 

A  SIMPLE  mineral  is  either  an  element,  or  a  union 
of  two  or  more  elements ;  and  minerals  associated  to- 
gether so  as  to  form  a  homogeneous  mass,  constitute 
rocks.  Thus,  gold  is  an  element,  and  at  the  same  time 
a  simple  mineral,  while  two  elements  are  chemically 
combined  to  form  the  simple  mineral  quartz,  and 
three  minerals  are  mixed  together  in  the  rock  called 
granite. 

There  are  about  600  simple  minerals.  To  treat  of 
these  in  all  their  varied  forms  is  the  special  province 
of  Mineralogy ;  but  a  general  knowledge  of  minerals 
is  necessary  to  the  student  of  Geology ;  therefore  this 
chapter  is  devoted  to  a  description  of  those  which  are 
most  abundant. 

Although  the  number  of  minerals  is  so  large,  eight 
or  nine  constitute  the  great  bulk  of  the  earth.  These 
are  Quartz,  Feldspar,  Mica,  Limestone,  Hornblende, 
Serpentine,  Gypsum,  Talc,  and  Oxyd  of  Iron. 

QUAETZ,  Silica,  or  Silex,  is  the  most  abundant  of  all 
minerals,  constituting  nearly  half  the  crust  of  the  earth. 

(26) 


MINERAL   CONSTITUTION   OF   THE   EARTH.          27 

It  is  one  of  the  constituents  of  granite,  and  enters 
largely  into  the  composition  of  other  rocks,  and  occurs 
in  abundance,  in  the  form  of  sand,  in  nearly  all  soils. 

Quartz  is  composed  of  silicon  and  oxygen — a  metal 
loid  and  a  gas.  It  is  hard,  scratches  glass  with  facility, 
cannot  be  cut  with  a  knife,  breaks  into  irregular  frag- 
ments under  the  hammer,  and,  with  the  exception  of 
the  fluohydric,  is  unaffected  by  acids. 

It  is  proper  to  observe  here  that  the  following 
minerals  constitute  what  is  called  the  scale  of  hardness, 
the  number  appended  to  each  name  indicating  the  rela- 
tive hardness  of  that  mineral. — Talc  1,  Rock  Salt  2, 
Calc  Spar  3,  Fluor  Spar  4,  Apatite  5.  Feldspar  6, 
Quartz  7,  Topaz  8,  Sapphire  9,  Diamond  10. 

With  these  minerals  all  others  are  compared.  If  a 
mineral  is  no  harder  than  talc,  its  hardness  is  said  to 
be  1 ;  if  as  hard  as  calc  spar,  its  hardness  is  said  to  be 
3 ;  if  as  hard  as  quartz,  7,  and  so  on.  If  a  mineral 
can  be  scratched  with  quartz  it  is  softer  than  the  latter ; 
if  it  is  scratched  with  quartz,  and  will  itself  scratch 
feldspar,  it  is  evident  that  its  hardness  is  between  6 
and  7.  And  the  same  rule  holds  good  in  all  cases. 
In  studying  a  mineral,  the  hardness  is  among  the 
first  things  to  be  determined ;  it  is  therefore  desirable 
to  possess  the  minerals  enumerated  above,  in  order 
that  we  may  use  them  in  making  comparisons. 

Quartz  is  of  every  shade  of  color,  owing  to  other 
substances  which  are  combined,  or  mixed  with  it. 


28  MINERAL   CONSTITUTION   OF   THE   EARTH. 

Flint  is  compact  quartz,  often  found  in  nodules  in 
chalk. 

Rock  crystal  includes  all  tlie  crystallized  colorless 
varieties.  The  ancients  believed  this  to  be  congealed 
water,  and  accordingly  applied  to  it  the  term  hrmtallos ; 
hence  our  term  crystal,  now  applied  to  all  minerals 
"  bounded  by  plain  surfaces  symmetrically  arranged." 

Every  substance  that  passes  from  a  liquid  to  a  solid 
state  crystallizes,  and  each  species  in  a  manner  pecu- 
liar to  itself.  In  fact,  crystallization  and  solidifica- 
tion are  one  and  the  same;  but  those  perfect  forms 
which  delight  the  eye  of  the  mineralogist,  are  pro- 
duced only  when  the  particles  are  free  to  arrange 
themselves  according  to  the  law  which  governs  them. 
In  the  cooling  of  a  mass,  as  a  mass  of  melted  iron,  the 
crystals  intermingle  in  every  possible  manner,  and 
hence,  under  such  circumstances,  no  perfect  crystals 
are  formed.  Ice  is  massive,  but  every  snow-flake  is  a 
cluster  of  crystals,  perfect  in  form  and  finish. 

Crystallography  is  the  department  of  Mineralogy 
which  treats  of  crystals ;  and  a  knowledge  of  this  and 
of  Chemistry  enables  the  patient  learner  to  identify 
every  mineral  substance. 

The  number  of  fundamental  mineral  forms,  that  is, 
the  forms  from  which  all  others  are  derived,  is  thirteen. 
These  are  prisms,  octohedrons,  and  dodecahedrons. 
The  number  of  derived  forms  is  very  great. 

Quartz  crystallizes  in  six-sided  prisms,  terminated 


MINERAL   CONSTITUTION   OF   THE   EARTH. 


29 


by  six-sided  pyramids.     Figures  1 — 4  illustrate  the 
common  forms  of  quartz  crystals. 


Fig.  1. 


Fig.  2. 


Fig.  3. 


Fig.  4. 


Some  of  the  common  forms  of  Quartz  Crystals. 

"While  these  forms  appear  different  at  first  glance,  a 
closer  inspection  shows  them  to  be  alike  in  all  essen- 
tial particulars.  Though  the  crystal  be  elongated, 
contracted,  or  flattened,  or  if  one  side  be  enlarged  at 
the  expense  of  another,  the  number  of  sides  and  the 
value  of  the  angles  are  constant. 

When,  as  at  Little  Falls,  N.  Y.,  and  at  many  other 
localities,  crystals  occur  loose  in  cavities,  each  end  is 
generally  terminated  with  a  pyramid.  Quartz  crys- 
tals, however,  are  more  frequently  attached,  as  seen 
in  the  beautiful  group  from  Warwick,  Mass.,  repre- 
sented by  the  accompanying  wood-cut. 
3* 


30  MINERAL    CONSTITUTION    OF   THE    EARTH. 

Fig.  5. 


Group  of  Quartz  Crystals,  Warwick,  Mass. 

Geodes,  or  hollow  pebbles,  with  the  concave  surface 
thickly  studded  with  quartz  crystals,  are  abundant  in 
the  limestone  of  many  regions,  and  especially  in  the 
limestone  bluffs  along  the  Mississippi  river.  Exter- 
nally these  geodes  are  mere  pebbles,  but  a  blow  from 
the  hammer  reveals  great  beauty  within. 

Pure  crystals  of  quartz,  and  of  every  other  mineral, 
are  generally  small.  Quartz  crystals  of  inferior  clear- 
ness are  sometimes  found  of  enormous  dimensions.  A 
group  in  the  Cabinet  of  Dartmouth  College  weighs  147 
pounds,  and  some  of  the  crystals  are  five  inches  in 
diameter.  There  is  a  group  in  the  University  of 
Naples  which  weighs  half  a  ton.  At  Milan  there  is  a 
crystal  of  quartz  three  feet  and  three  inches  in  length, 
six  feet  in  circumference,  and  weighing  800  pounds. 

"Rock  crystals,  in  greater  or  less  perfection,  occur 


MINERAL   CONSTITUTION   OF   THE   EARTH.  31 

almost  everywhere.  Canada  Creek,  St.  Lawrence 
county,  1ST.  Y.,  Little  Falls,  in  the  same  state,  and 
Smithfield,  E.  I.,  are  among  the  noted  localities  in 
the  United  States.  The  largest  crystals  in  the  world 
come  from  the  Alps. 

The  purest  specimens  of  rock-crystal  are  often  cut 
and  used  in  jewellery,  optical  instruments,  and  spec- 
tacle-glasses. Cups  and  vases  were  formerly  cut  from 
this  substance.  Quartz  crystals  containing  rutile  afford 
beautiful  gems. 

Amethyst  is  a  purple  variety  of  crystallized  quartz. 
It  is  colored  by  the  oxyd  of  manganese,  or  by  iron 
and  soda.  It  was  named  by  the  ancients,  who  believed 
that  wine  drunk  from  goblets  made  of  this  mineral 
would  not  intoxicate ;  and  this  idea  is  expressed  in  its 
name. 

Amethyst  has  always  been  esteemed  as  a  gem,  but  is 
more  brilliant  by  sunlight  than  by  gaslight.  Fine 
cabinet  specimens  are  found  in  Lincoln  county,  North 
Carolina.  Small  crystals  are  plentiful  on  Mount 
Holyoke.  The  finest  varieties  used  for  jewellery  are 
brought  from  Brazil,  Ceylon,  India,  Siberia,  and  from 
various  parts  of  Europe. 

Rose  quartz  is  a  massive  variety,  of  a  rose  or  pink 
color,  which  is  probably  due  to  manganese.  Beautiful 
specimens  can  be  obtained  in  abundance  at  Acworth, 
1ST.  H.,  and  at  Paris,  Me. 

Prase  is  a  leek-green,  massive  variety  of  quartz. 


32  MINERAL   CONSTITUTION   OF   THE   EARTH. 

Smoky  quartz  occurs  both  crystallized  and  massive. 
Large  crystals  have  been  found  in  the  vicinity  of  the 
"White  Mountains,  1ST.  H. 

Ferruginous  quartz  is  yellow,  or  brown  red,  the  color 
being  due  to  the  oxyd  of  iron. 

Chalcedony  is  a  gray  or  white  variety  of  quartz, 
with  a  lustre  of  wax,  and  often  exhibiting  a  botryoidal 
surface.  It  occurs  in  cavities  of  the  rocks,  where  it 
was  probably  formed  by  the  infiltration  of  silicious 
waters. 

Carnelian  is  the  same  material  as  the  last,  with  a 
bright  red  color.  It  is  much  used  for  the  more  com- 
mon jewellery. 

Chrysoprase  is  a  leek-green  variety  of  chalcedony. 

Sard  is  a  deep  brown  red  variety  of  chalcedony. 

Agate  is  a  variety  of  chalcedony,  in  which  the  colors 
are  arranged  in  clouds,  spots,  bands,  and  concentric 
lines.  When  the  lines  are  zigzag,  it  is  called  Fortifi- 
cation agate.  Sometimes  moss-like  delineations  are 
found  in  agate,  then  it  is  called  Mocha-stone,  or  Moss- 
agate.  When  the  colors  of  the  agate  are  arranged  in 
horizontal  layers,  or  bands,  it  is  called  Onyx,  and  is 
the  stone  used  in  making  real  cameos.  When  the 
layers  are  sard  and  white  chalcedony,  it  is  called 
Sardonyx. 

Chalcedony,  carnelian,  and  agate  pebbles  are  abun- 
dant on  the  shores  of  Lake  Superior,  and  other  lakes 
of  the  West,  also  on  the  shores  of  Scotland. 


MINERAL   CONSTITUTION   OF  THE   EAKTH.          33 

Jasper  is  silica  containing  oxyd  of  iron  and  clay. 
It  occurs  of  various  colors,  though  it  is  generally 
red.  Jasper  is  exceedingly  abundant  in  Saugus, 
Mass. 

Bloodstone,  or  Heliotrope,  is  a  deep  green  variety  of 
quartz,  with  blood-red  spots.  It  contains  some  clay ; 
and  the  spots  are  probably  due  to  iron.  It  is  much 
used  for  ring-stones  and  seals.  Fine  specimens  come 
from  India  and  Siberia. 

Granular  quartz  is  of  a  granular  texture,  resembling 
loaf-sugar. 

Quartz  is  an  important  mineral  in  the  arts.  Window- 
glass  is  made  of  quartz,  soda,  and  lime.  Plate-glass 
of  quartz,  potash,  and  lime.  Flint-glass  and  crystal- 
glass  are  made  of  quartz,  potash,  and  soda.  Green 
bottle-glass  of  quartz,  alumina,  oxyds  of  iron  and 
manganese,  and  potash,  or  soda. 

The  great  abundance  of  quartz  is  significant  of  its 
importance  in  the  economy  of  nature.  It  is  essential 
to  the  growth  of  vegetation.  Many  kinds  of  plants 
cannot  exist  without  it.  This  is  especially  true  of 
grasses  and  grain.  It  is  this  which  gives  firmness  to 
their  stems.  When  there  is  a  deficiency  of  available 
silica,  the  grass  or  grain  falls  down.  Some  rushes 
contain  so  much  silica  that  they  are  used  for  polishing 
purposes. 

FELDSPAR  enters  largely  into  the  composition  of  the 
earth's  crust.  It  differs  from  quartz  in  having  a  regu- 


MINERAL   CONSTITUTION   OF   THE   EARTH. 


lar  cleavage,  a  pearly  lustre,  and  in  being  somewhat 
softer  than  the  latter.  Its  hardness  is  6.  Feldspar  is 
composed  of  silica  64.20,  alumina  18.40,  potash  16.95. 
It  is  generally  of  a  gray  or  whitish  color ;  though 
flesh-red,  green,  and  blue  varieties  are  not  uncommon 
in  some  regions.  It  is  one  of  the  constituents  of 
granite.  Feldspar  is  quarried  at  Acworth,  Alstead, 
and  Grafton,  N.  H. 


Fig.  6. 


Fig.  7. 


Common  forms  of  Crystallized  Feldspar. 

Feldspar  is  extensively  used  in  the  manufacture  of 
mineral  teeth  and  porcelain.  When  decomposed,  it 
forms  a  clay  called  Kaolin,  used  in  the  manufacture 
of  pottery.  Common  brick-clay  is  impure  decomposed 
feldspar,  and  the  bricks  owe  their  red  color  to  the 
presence  of  iron  in  the  clay. 

A  variety  of  feldspar,  containing  a  large  proportion 
of  soda,  is  called  Albite,  and  is  easily  distinguished 
from  the  common  variety  by  its  invariable  whiteness. 


MINERAL   CONSTITUTION"   OF   THE   EARTH.  35 

Moonstone  and  Sunstone  are  varieties  of  feldspar  some- 
times used  as  gems. 

MICA;  with  quartz  and  feldspar;  constitutes  granite. 
When  the  constituents  are  coarse,  we  have  coarse 
granite,  but  when  fine,  they  form  the  compact  granite 
suitable  for  building  purposes.  In  the  coarse  granite 
rocks  of  Alstead  and  Grafton,  N".  II.,  plates  of  mica  are 
sometimes  obtained  from  one  to  two  feet  long,  and  a 
foot  wide. 

The  elasticity  of  mica,  and  the  remarkable  facility 
with  which  it  may  be  split  into  extremely  thin  leaves, 
readily  distinguish  it  from  all  other  minerals.  Its 
colors  are  white,  green,  brown,  yellow,  and  black. 
Its  hardness  varies  from  2  to  2.5.  Sometimes,  as  at 
Goshen,  Mass.,  it  is  found  of  a  beautiful  rose  or  pink 
color,  and  hence  is  called  Rose  Mica.  A  beautiful 
variety  found  at  Paris,  Me.,  consisting  of  an  aggre- 
gation of  crystals  of  a  pink  or  purple  color,  is  called 
Lepidolite.  A  variety,  consisting  of  black,  globular,  or 
oval  concretions,  from  a  half  inch  to  two  inches  in 
diameter,  is  found  at  Kewfane,  and  at  Craftsbury,  Yt. 

Fig.  8.  Fig.  9. 


Common  forms  of  Mica  Crystals. 


36  MINERAL   CONSTITUTION"   OF  THE   EARTH. 

The  plates  of  mica,  which  we  observe  more  fre- 
quently than  crystals,  are  but  parts  of  crystals  more 
or  less  regular.  Mica  has  many  important  uses.  Not 
being  easily  injured  by  fire,  it  is  used  in  the  doors  of 
stoves,  and  in  all  places  where  a  transparent  or  trans- 
lucent substance  is  necessary,  and  at  the  same  time 
.where  one  is  required  that  will  not  easily  break.  The 
composition  of  common  mica  is  silica  46.3,  alumina 
36.8,  potash  9.2,  oxyd  of  iron  4.5,  fluoric  acid  0.7, 
water  1.8. 

Fig.  8  is  a  perfect  copy  of  a  beautiful  crystal  with 
its  lower  portion  embedded  in  rock,  from  Gilsum, 
N;H. 

LIMESTONE,  or  Carbonate  of  Lime,  although  a  simple 
mineral,  occurs  in  vast  masses,  forming  the  flanks  of 
mountains,  and  underlying  extensive  regions.  It  is 
readily  distinguished  from  quartz,  by  its  inferior 
hardness — being  easily  cut  with  a  knife — and  by 
its  effervescence  with  acids.  Its  hardness  is  3. 
Its  composition  is  lime  56.3,  and  carbonic  acid 
43.7.  Dolomite  is  a  carbonate  of  lime,  containing 
magnesia. 

Considered  in  regard  to  structure,  limestones  are 
either  compact  or  granular.  The  compact  limestones 
break  with  a  smooth  surface,  often  conchoidal.  The 
granular  are  crystalline,  some  varieties  resembling 
loaf  sugar. 

Limestones  capable  of  taking  a  polish,  are  called 


MINERAL   CONSTITUTION   OF   THE   EARTH.          37 

Marble,  which  is  familiar  to  all  in  the  form  of  table- 
tops,  floors,  mantel-pieces,  fire-jambs,  &c. 

The  purest  and  best  crystalline  limestone  is  used 
in  sculpture,  and  is  called  statuary  marble,  the  finest 
qualities  of  which  come  from  Carrara  in  Italy,  and 
from  the  island  of  Paros.  The  celebrated  Parian 
marble,  used  by  the  Grecian  sculptors,  came  from  the 
latter  place. 

Marble  has  always  been  extensively  used  for 
architectural  purposes.  Many  of  the  ancient  temples 
were  built  of  it.  The  Parthenon  at  Athens  was  built 
of  white  marble.  It  occurs,  suitable  for  building  pur- 
poses, abundantly  in  Yermont,  Western  Massachusetts, 
Eastern  New  York,  and  Western  Connecticut. 

Many  varieties  of  marble  are  beautifully  shaded  and 
mottled.  These  markings  are  due  to  foreign  matter, 
and,  in  many  instances,  to  the  shells,  corals,  and 
encrinites  which  are  scattered  through  the  rock,  and 
not  unfrequently  constitute  its  main  bulk. 

Chalk  is  a  carbonate  of  lime.  Calcareous  Tufa  is 
vegetable  matter  incrusted  or  petrified  by  deposits 
of  carbonate  of  lime  from  lime  springs.  Such 
springs  are  common.  One  in  Williamstown,  Yt.;  has 
formed  a  deposit  of  calcareous  tufa  of  considerable 
extent. 

,  In  caves,  calcareous  waters  form  Stalactites,  which 
hang  from  the  roof  like  icicles ;  and  the  water  which 
drips  from  a  stalactite  deposits  a  mass  upon  the  floor 


38  MINERAL   CONSTITUTION   OF   THE   EARTH. 

more  or  less  conical,  called  Stalagmite.     Not  unfre- 
quently  beautiful  columns  are  formed  in  this  way. 

Fig.  10. 


Cave  •with  Stalactites,  Stalagmites,  and  Columns. 

The  crystallized  varieties  of  limestone  are  all  known 
under  the  general  name  of  Calc  Spar.  More  than 
seven  hundred  crystallized  forms  of  this  mineral — 
all  modifications  of  the  rhombohedron — have  been 
described  by  mineralogists.  The  primary  form,  the 
rhombohedron,  and  some  of  the  most  common  modifi- 
cations, are  represented  by  the  figures  on  the  follow- 
ing page.  Fig.  14  is  the  form  of  the  variety  known 
as  Dog-tooth  Spar,  very  abundant  at  Lockport,  1ST.  Y. 

All  varieties  of  calc  spar  cleave  into  rhombohedrons, 
transparent  specimens  of  which  have  the  property  of 
double  refraction — of  making  objects  over  which  they 
are  placed  appear  double.  Such  specimens  are  fami- 
liarly known  under  the  name  of  Iceland  Spar. 


MINERAL   CONSTITUTION  OF  THE  EARTH.          39 
Fig.  11.  Fig.  12.  Fig.  13.  Fig.  14. 


Common  forms  of  Calc  Spar. 

The  crystallized  varieties  may  be  found  in  all 
limestone  regions.  The  finest  specimens  in  the 
United  States  occur  in  St.  Lawrence  county,  N.  Y. 
Beautiful  specimens  may  be  obtained  at  every  lime- 
quarry. 

When  burnt,  every  variety  of  limestone  yields 
quick-lime.  Heat  drives  off  the  carbonic  acid,  and 
leaves  the  lime. 

Besides  the  various  uses  of  limestone  for  building 
purposes,  it  performs  important  offices  in  the  vegetable 
and  in  the  animal  kingdom.  It  is  indispensable  to  the 
pod-bearing  plants,  and  many  others.  It  constitutes 
the  chief  material  of  the  hard  parts  of  many  of  the 
lower  animals. 

Coral  reefs,  composed  of  the  skeletons  of  polyps — 
to  be  explained  in  a  subsequent  chapter — are  mostly 
carbonate  of  lime.  So  also  are  the  shells  of  the  oyster, 
clam,  lobster,  crabs,  and  all  other  so  called  shell-fish. 


4:0 


MINERAL   CONSTITUTION   OF   THE   EARTH. 


HORNBLENDE  is  a  tough  mineral,  generally  dark- 
colored,  though  it  is  found  of  all  shades,  from  white  to 
black.  It  occurs  everywhere  in  the  rocks  of  volcanic 
origin,  in  some  of  the  older  slates,  and  in  syenite, 
which  will  be  noticed  hereafter.  Its  hardness  varies 
from  5  to  6.  Tremolite,  actynolite,  atld  asbestus,  are 
varieties  of  hornblende.  Asbestus  occurs  both  compact 
and  fibrous.  It  is  often  erroneously  pronounced  to  be 
petrified  wood.  Sometimes  it  is  so  fibrous  that  it  can 
be  spun  and  woven  like  cotton.  The  ancients  made 
napkins  of  it,  and,  as  it  is  incombustible,  they  cleansed 
them  by  throwing  them  upon  the  fire.  It  was  also 
used  for  wicks  in  the  lamps  of  the  temples ;  and  be- 
cause it  was  not  consumed,  the  mineral  was  called 
asbestus,  which  name  expresses  that  fact.  Asbestus  is 
abundant  in  Eichmond  county,  New  York,  and  in 
many  other  places  in  the  United  States. 

Composition  of  hornblende:   silica  48.8^  magnesia 


Fig.  15. 


Fig.  16. 


Hornblende.  Pyroxene. 

Common  form  of  Hornblende  and  of  Pyroxene  Crystals. 


MINERAL   CONSTITUTION   OF  THE   EARTH.          41 

13.  lime  10.2,  alumina  7.5,  protoxyd  of  iron  18.75,  pro- 
toxyd  of  manganese,  hydrofluoric  acid,  and  water,  1.24. 

Pyroxene,  under  the  various  names  of  Diopside, 
Sahlite,  Augite,  &c.,  closely  resembles  hornblende,  but 
differs  from  it  in  cleavage,  and  in  the  angles  of  its 
crystals. 

TALC  sometimes  resembles  mica,  from  which  it  may 
be  readily  distinguished  by  its  inferior  hardness,  and  by 
its  inelasticity.  Talc  is  one  of  the  softest  minerals,  has 
a  foliated  structure,  and  feels  very  unctuous.  Massive 
talc  is  called  Steatite,  or  Soapstone,  and  is  in  common 
use  for  stoves,  stove  and  fire-place  linings,  &c.  It  is 
extensively  quarried  in  New  England.  Groton,  Mid- 
dlefield,  Windsor,  Blanford,  Chester,  and  Andover, 
are  the  principal  localities  in  Massachusetts;  Orford 
and  Francestown  in  New  Hampshire ;  and  Grafton  and 
Windham  in  Vermont.  Talc  and  its  varieties  are 
mostly  silica  and  magnesia. 

SERPENTINE  occurs  massive,  often  forming  exten- 
sive hills,  as  at  Cavendish,  Yt.  Its  colors  are  shades 
of  green.  Frequently  it  is  found  beautifully  clouded, 
presenting  a  fine  appearance  when  polished.  It  is 
composed  of  silica  42.3,  magnesia  44.2,  protoxyd  of 
iron  0.2,  carbonic  acid  0.9,  and  water  12.4.  Its  hard- 
ness varies  from  2.5  to  4. 

Precious  Serpentine  is  of  a  rich  oil  green  color,  and 
is  a  good  material  for  inlaid  work.  This  variety 
occurs  near  Newburyport,  Mass. 

4* 


42  MINERAL   CONSTITUTION   OF  THE   EARTH. 

The  clouded  varieties  are  well  "known  under  the 
name  of  Verd-antique,  extensively  used  for  tables,  fire- 
jambs,  and  various  ornamental  purposes.  This  vari- 
ety is  quarried  of  great  beauty  at  Eoxbury,  Vt. 

GYPSUM,  or  Sulphate  of  Lime,  constitutes  extensive 
formations  in  New  York,  the  Western  and  South- 
Western  States,  and  in  Nova  Scotia.  It  is  also  abun- 
dant in  Europe.  Its  composition  is  lime  32.9,  sul- 
phuric acid  46.3,  and  water  20.8.  It  is  readily  dis- 
tinguished from  carbonate  of  lime  by  being  softer, 
and  by  not  effervescing  with  acids.  Its  hardness  is 
about  2.  When  ground,  it  is  used  as  a  fertilizer.  It 
is  also  extensively  employed  in  taking  casts  and 
models,  and  for  hard  finish  on  the  walls  of  houses. 
For  these  purposes  the  gypsum  is  ground  and  heated, 
to  expel  the  water;  then,  by  wetting  it  again,  it  is 
made  into  paste,  which  hardens  almo§t  immediately. 
Gypsum  is  often  found  in  beautiful  crystals.  Some- 
times the  crystals  are  double,  as  in  Fig.  18. 

Fig.  17.  Fig.  18. 


Common  form  of  Gypsum  Crystals. 

When  found  in  foliated  masses,  it  is  called  Selenite, 


MINERAL    CONSTITUTION   OF   THE   EARTH.  43 

and  can  be  readily  split  into  plates  like  mica,  but  not 
to  the  same  extent.  It  is  much  softer  than  mica,  and 
inelastic.  Compact  gypsum  of  a  fine  grain,  and  of  a 
pure  white,  or  light  color,  is  called  Alabaster,  and  is 
much  used  for  vases  and  various  ornaments.  Casta- 
lino,  Italy,  furnishes  the  finest  alabaster.  In  the 
Mammoth  Cave,  Kentucky,  it  occurs  in  beautiful  imi- 
tations of  vines,  flowers,  and  fruits. 

OXYD  OF  IRON  is  widely  diffused,  occurring  in 
nearly  all  soils,  and  disseminated  among  the  solid 
rocks,  and  often  covering  them  in  the  form  of  rust. 
It  also  occurs  in  veins  and  beds,  and  sometimes  con- 
stitutes the  great  bulk  of  mountains.  More  extended 
remarks  upon  iron  are  made  under  the  head  of  Metals 
and  Metallic  Ores. 


OTHER  MINERALS  OF  IMPORTANCE  TO  THE  GEOLOGIST. 

Although  the  minerals  noticed  in  the  previous  pages 
are  the  most  abundant,  it  is  important  that  the  student 
become  acquainted  with  others  which  he  will  fre- 
quently meet  with  in  his  investigations,  and  which 
are  worthy  of  attention,  both  on  account  of  their 
intrinsic  value  and  interest,  and  the  aid  they  will 
afford  in  the  examination  of  the  rocky  formations  of 
our  globe. 

The  additional  minerals  which  will  be  briefly 
noticed,  are  Heavy  Spar,  Celestine,  Fluor  Spar,  Apa- 


44  MINERAL   CONSTITUTION   OF   THE   EARTH. 

tite,  Scapolite,  Andalusite,  Staurotide,  Kyanite,  Garnet, 
Idocrase,  Epidote,  Chondrodite,  Spinel,  Corundum,  the 
Zeolite  Family,  Tourmaline,  lolite,  Beryl,  and  Zircon, 
and  the  most  common  Metals  and  Metallic  Ores. 

HEAVY  SPAR,  or  Sulphate  of  Baryta,  is  a  white  or 
gray  mineral,  often  associated  with  metallic  ores.  It 
is  readily  distinguished  from  the  minerals  which  it 
resembles,  by  its  greater  weight.  It  occurs  in  lami- 
nated masses  and  in  crystals.  Its  hardness  varies  from 
2.5  to  3.5. 

Fig.  19.  Fig.  20. 


Common  forms  of  crystallized  Heavy  Spar. 

Heavy  Spar  is  found  in  abundance  at  Hatfield, 
Mass.,  and  Cheshire,  Conn. ;  also  in  the  Southern  and 
"Western  States.  Its  composition  is  sulphuric  acid  34, 
and  baryta  66.  It  is  used  as  a  pigment  with  white 
lead. 

CELESTINE,  or  the  Sulphate  of  Strontia,  occurs  in 
long,  slender,  and  often  flat  crystals,  generally  of  a 
blue  color,  and  readily  distinguished  from  heavy  spar 
by  being  lighter  than  that  mineral ;  and  from  all  the 
carbonates  by  not  effervescing  with  acids.  Its  hard- 


MINERAL   CONSTITUTION    OF   THE   EARTH.          45 

ness  is  about  3.5.  It  is  found  on  Strontian  Island, 
Lake  Erie;  at  Lockport  and  Kossie,  1ST.  Y.  At 
Lockport  it  is  associated  with  dog-tooth  spar.  Com- 
position, sulphuric  acid  43.6,  strontia  56.4.  Celes- 
tine  is  used  for  making  the  nitrate  of  strontia,  the 
substance  which  gives  the  red  color  in  fireworks. 

FLUOR  SPAR,  or  Fluate  of  Lime,  is  found  both  mas- 
sive and  crystallized  in  cubes,  which  readily  cleave  so 
as  to  form  octahedrons.  Its  colors  are  dingy  white, 
purple,  green,  brown,  yellow,  rose,  and  slate;  but 
purple  and  green  varieties  are  the  most  common. 
The  purple  resembles  a.methyst,  but  its  inferior  hard- 
ness easily  distinguishes  it  from  that  mineral.  Its 
composition  is  fluorine  47.7,  calcium  52.3. 

Fluor  Spar  occurs  in  large  crystals  at  Muscalonge 
Lake,  St.  Lawrence  county,  N.  Y.  It  is  very  abun- 
dant in  Derbyshire,  England,  and  hence  is  often  called 
Derbyshire  Spar.  It  takes  a  good  polish,  and  is  much 
used  in  England  in  the  manufacture  of  vases,  and 
various  kinds  of  ornamental  work.  Fluoric  acid,  used 
in  etching,  is  obtained  from  this  mineral. 

APATITE,  or  Phosphate  of  Lime,  occurs  both  massive 
and  in  six-sided  prisms.  It  is  found  in  granular  lime- 
stone, gneiss,  and  mica  slate.  Its  softness  will  readily 
distinguish  it  from  beryl,  which  it  often  resembles. 
It  is  easily  scratched  with  a  knife,  dissolves  in  acids 
without  effervescence,  and  phosphoresces  when  heated. 
Its  colors  are  various,  but  the  crystallized  varieties  are 


46  MINERAL   CONSTITUTION   OF   THE   EARTH. 

generally  some  shade  of  green.  Its  composition  is 
phosphate  of  lime  92.1,  fluorid  of  calcium  7.0,  chlorid 
of  calcium  0.9. 

This  mineral  is  an  important  fertilizer,  entering  into 
the  composition  of  the  kernel  of  the  most  important 
grains.  Bones  contain  more  than  50  per  cent,  of 
phosphate  of  lime.  These  facts  show  the  important 
relation  this  mineral  sustains  to  the  vegetable  and  the 
animal  kingdom.  Beautiful  crystals  of  apatite  are 
obtained  in  St.  Lawrence  county,  N.  Y. 

SCAPOLITE  occurs  in  the  form  of  square  prisms,  in 
granular  limestone  and  in  quartz.  It  also  occurs 
massive.  Its  hardness  varies  from  5  to  6.  Scapolite 
occurs  in  abundance  at  Governeur,  N".  Yv  and  at 
Bolton,  Mass.  At  the  latter  place  a  massive  variety 
is  found  of  a  beautiful  lilac  color,  and  hence  is  called 
Lilac  Scapolite. 

ANDALUSITE,  also  called  Chiastolite,  and  sometimes 
Macle,  usually  occurs  in  clay  slate,  in  four-sided 
prisms,  more  or  less  modified.  The  hardness  of  this 
mineral  varies  from  3  to  7.5.  Cross  sections  of  crystals 

Fig.  21.  Fig.  22.  Fig.  23. 


Perfect  copy  of  cross  sections  of  Andalusite  Crystals,  Lancaster,  Mass. 


MINERAL   CONSTITUTION   OF  THE  EARTH.          47 

exhibit  something  that  reminds  one  of  mosaic  work, 
as  may  be  seen  in  the  accompanying  figures,  copied 
from  nature. 

STAUROTIDE  occurs  abundantly  in  the  mica  slate 
rocks  of  New  England.  Perfect  specimens  may  be 
obtained  in  almost  any  quantity  near  Mink  Pond, 
Lisbon,  K  H.  Staurotide  is  also  abundant  in  Charles- 
town  in  the  same  state.  Its  hardness  varies  from  7 
to  7.5. 

Fig.  24.  Fig.  25.  Fig.  26. 


Several  forms  of  Staurotide  Crystals. 

Crystals  of  this  mineral  are  sometimes  found,  which 
exhibit  a  tesselated  appearance  like  andalusite.  Ac- 
cording to  Dr.  C.  T.  Jackson,  such  are  found  where 
mica  slate,  containing  them,  passes  into  clay  slate. 

KYANITE  occurs  in  long  flat  crystals,  either  single 
or  aggregated,  penetrating  quartz,  gneiss,  and  mica 
slate.  Its  color  is  sky  blue,  and  when  fresh  from  the 
quarry,  the  specimens  are  remarkably  beautiful.  Hard- 
ness 5  to  7.  Kyanite  occurs  at  Litchfield  and  Wash- 
ington, Conn. ;  Chesterfield,  Mass. ;  and  Acworth,  N".  H. 


48  MINERAL   CONSTITUTION   OF   THE   EARTH. 

GARNET  occurs  in  dodecahedrons  and  doable  dode- 
cahedrons. It  is  found  of  almost  every  color.  Hard- 
ness from.  6.5  to  7.5.  Precious  Garnet  is  deep  red,  and 
is  transparent  or  translucent.  Its  composition  is 
silica  42.5,  alumina  19.15,  protoxyd  of  iron  33.6, 
protoxyd  of  manganese  5.5.  Common  garnet  is  dingy 
red.  Cinnamon  Garnet,  or  Cinnamon  Stone,  is  cinna- 
mon brown,  and  hence  its  name.  The  composition 
of  cinnamon  garnet  differs  from  the  precious  garnet, 
in  containing  only  5  or  6  per  cent,  of  iron  and  by 
having  30  per  cent,  of  lime,  while  the  precious  garnet 
has  no  lime.  Manganesian  garnet  is  of  a  deep  red 
color,  and  very  brittle.  It  contains  30  per  cent,  of  the 
protoxyd  of  manganese. 

Fig.  27.  Fig.  28.  Fig.  29. 


Common  forms  of  Garnet. 

Garnet  occurs  abundantly  in  mica  slate,  gneiss,  and 
in  granite,  especially  in  the  coarse  varieties  of  the  latter. 
Cinnamon  garnet  is  generally  found  at  the  junction  of 
limestone  with  silicious  rocks,  This  mineral  is  found 
under  such  circumstances  at  Amherst,  N.  H..  and  at 
Carlisle,  Mass. 

IDOCRASE,  or  Egeran,  resembles  some  varieties  of 


MINEKAL    CONSTITUTION   OF   THE   EAETH. 


cinnamon  garnet,  with  which  it  is  often  found;  but 
differs  in  crystallizing  in  square  prisms.  Its  color  is 
brown,  and  its  composition  silica  37.4,  alumina  23.5, 
protoxyd  of  iron  4.0,  lime  29.7,  magnesia  and  pro- 
toxyd  of  manganese  5.2.  Hardness  6.5.  Fine  spe- 


Fig.  30. 


Fig.  31. 


Common  forms  of  Idocrase. 


cimens  are  found  at  Parsonsfield,  Me.,   and  at  Am- 
herst,  K  H. 

EPIDOTE  may  be  distinguished  by  its  yellowish 
green  color.  It  often  occurs  in  beautiful  six-sided 
prisms,  but  frequently  it  appears  as  a  green  coating 


Fig.  32. 


Fig.  33. 


Common  forms  of  Epidote. 

D 


50  MINERAL    CONSTITUTION   OF   THE    EARTH. 

upon  the  sides  of  fissures  in  the  rocks,  as  at  Nahant, 
Mass.  It  is  generally  found  in  the  greatest  perfection 
where  dikes  cut  across  rocks  abounding  in  lime. 
It  is  found  in  fine  crystals  at  Franconia,  N.  H.  Its 
composition  is  silica  37.0,  alumina  26.6,  lime  20.0, 
protoxyd  of  iron  13.0,  protoxyd  of  manganese  0.6, 
water,  1.8.  Hardness  from  6  to  7. 

CHONDRODITE  occurs  in  small  brownish  rounded 
kernels  in  granular  limestone.  Its  composition  is 
silica,  magnesia,  protoxyd  of  iron,  and  fluorine.  Hard- 
ness 6. 

SPINEL  occurs  in  octahedrons  and  dodecahedrons, 
in  limestone  and  gneiss.  Its  colors  vary  from  red  to 
black ;  blue  and  brown  being  common.  Its  composi- 
tion is  mainly  alumina  and  magnesia.  Hardness  8. 
This  mineral  and  the  last  are  abundant  in  the  lime- 
stone from  Amity,  N.  Y.,  to  Andover,  "N.  J.  Small 
crystals  of  spinel  are  quite  numerous  in  the  limestone 
at  Bolton,  Mass.  Clear  crystals  of  this  mineral  are 
much  used  as  gems.  The  red  variety  is  the  common 
ruby  of  the  shops. 

CORUNDUM  occurs  in  hexagonal  prisms,  and  mas- 
sive. It  is  readily  distinguished  by  its  hardness, 
scratching  all  other  minerals  except  the  diamond. 
Blue  is  the  prevailing  color,  but  red,  green,  and  yel- 
low are  not  uncommon.  The  pure  varieties,  when 
blue,  are  called  Sapphire,  and  when  red,  Oriental  Ruby, 
and  are  highly  prized  as  gems.  The  granular  varie- 


MINERAL    CONSTITUTION  OF   THE   EAKTH.          51 

ties,  which  generally  contain  some  iron,  are  called 
Emery.  The  emery  of  commerce  comes  mostly  from 
Turkey  and  the  Grecian  Islands.  Corundum  is  found 
in  many  places  in  the  United  States,  especially  in  New 
Jersey,  Pennsylvania,  North  Carolina,  and  Georgia. 
The  finest  sapphires  and  oriental  rubies  come  from 
India,  especially  from  Ceylon. 

The  Zeolite  Family  comprises  a  great  number  of 
minerals,  which  are  found  mostly  lining  cavities  and 
seams  in  rocks  of  volcanic  origin.  They  are  called 
zeolites,  from  the  Greek  zeo,  to  boil,  because,  when 
heated  before  the  blow-pipe,  they  swell  or  boil.  They 
are  mostly  composed  of  silica,  alumina,  and  lime,  or 
soda.  The  best  localities  of  this  family  in  this  coun- 
try, are  Bergen  Hill,  N.  J.,  the  Copper  Kegion  of 
Lake  Superior,  and  Peter's  Point  and  Cape  Blomidon, 
Nova  Scotia. 

The  principal  zeolites  common  in  this  country,  are 
Heulandite  a  white  or  reddish  mineral,  in  rhomboi- 
dal  prisms;  Stilbite,  generally  white,  in  elongated 
rectangular  prisms ;  Apophyllite,  generally  white  or 
grayish,  in  square  prisms,  with  a  sharp  pyramidal 
termination;  Laumonite,  generally  massive,  with  a 
radiating  structure,  and  of  a  white  or  grayish  color ; 
Natrollte,  in  slender  rhombic  prisms ;  Thomsonite,  con- 
sisting of  masses  of  radiating  fibres,  or  acicular  crys- 
tals of  a  snow-white  color;  Anakime,  in  trapezohe- 
drons  of  a  milky  color ;  Chabazite,  in  white  or  reddish 


52 


MINERAL   CONSTITUTION   OF   THE    EARTH. 


somewhat  cubical  crystals;  and  Prehnite,  generally 
found  in  reniform  and  botryoidal  masses  of  a  light 
green  color.  This  mineral  takes  a  handsome  polish, 
and  is  used  for  various  ornamental  purposes.  To  this 
list  we  may  add  Datholite,  which  is  reckoned  among 
the  zeolites  by  many  writers.  It  occurs  in  rhombic 
prisms,  generally  of  a  white  color.  It  forms  a  jelly 
with  nitric  acid. 

TOURMALINE  is  a  mineral  of  very  common  occur- 
rence in  granite,  gneiss,  mica  slate,  quartz,  chlorite 
slate,  and  steatite.  It  is  also  found  in  granular  lime- 
stone. Black  and  brown  varieties  are  the  most  com- 
mon. It  also  occurs  blue,  bright,  and  pale  red,  or 
pink,  green,  cinnamon  brown,  yellow,  gray,  and  white. 
It  crystallizes  in  3,  6;  9,  or  12  sided  prisms.  Hardness 
about  7.5. 


Fig.  34. 


Fig.  35. 


Fig.  36. 


Common  forms  of  Tourmaline. 


The  different  colored  tourmalines  have  received  dif- 
ferent names.     Thus,  Schorl  was  formerly  applied  to 


MINERAL   CONSTITUTION    OF   THE   EARTH.  53 

the  black  variety,  but  now  it  is  called  Black  Tourma- 
line simply,  while  the  term  schorl  is  going  out  of  use. 
Black  tourmaline  is  often  very  highly  polished,  and 
beautifully  striated.  This  is  the  case  when  it  occurs 
in  quartz,  and  the  crystal  leaves  its  impress  upon  the 
latter,  even  to  the  microscopic  lines.  The  writer 
has  many  such  crystals  of  great  beauty  from  Sulli- 
van, K  H. 

The  red  varieties  are  called  Rubellite,  the  blue  and 
blue  black,  Indicolite.  Black  tourmaline  has  yielded 
silica  33.0,  alumina  38.2,  lime  0.8,  protoxyd  of  iron, 
23.8,  soda  3.2,  boracic  acid  1.9.  A  specimen  of  ru- 
bellite  yielded  silica  39.4,  alumina  44.0,  potash  1.3, 
boracic  acid  4.2,  lithia  2.5,  peroxyd  of  manganese  5.0. 

Black  tourmaline  is  found  in  all  granite  regions. 
The  pink,  red,  and  blue  varieties  occur  in  remark- 
able beauty  at  Paris,  Me.,  and  in  less  perfection 
at  Goshen  and  Chesterfield,  Mass.  The  red,  pink, 
and  green  tourmalines  of  Paris,  Me.,  when  perfectly 
free  from  flaws,  afford  gems  of  great  brilliancy  and 
beauty. 

IOLITE  occurs  mostly  in  hexagonal  prisms,  which 
are  separable  into  layers  at  right  angles  to  the  length 
of  the  crystal.  Its  color  is  blue,  of  various  shades. 
It  occurs  mostly  in  granite,  gneiss,  and  talcose  rocks. 
The  principal  localities  in  the  United  States  are  at 
Haddam,  Conn.,  Brimfield,  Mass.,  and  Kichmond, 

N".  H.     Pure  iolite  is  cut  for  gems. 
5* 


54  MINERAL    CONSTITUTION   OF   THE   EARTH. 

TOPAZ,  one  of  the  minerals  mentioned  in  the  scale 
of  hardness,  is  found  at  Trumbull,  Conn.,  the  principal 
locality  of  this  species  in  the  United  States.  It  is 
readily  distinguished  by  its  brilliant  transverse  cleav- 
age. Topaz  is  generally  pale  yellow;  but  green,  blue, 
and  red  shades  are  not  uncommon.  The  finest  speci- 
mens used  in  jewellery  come  from  Siberia  and  Brazil. 

BERYL  occurs  in  six-sided  prisms  in  coarse  granite. 
Sometimes  the  crystal  has  flat  terminations^  as  repre- 
sented by  Fig.  37,  drawn  from  a  specimen  in  the 


Fig.  37. 


Fig.  38. 


Common,  forms  of  Beryl. 

author's  collection,  from  Sullivan,  1ST.  H.  More  fre- 
quently no  regular  termination  is  found.  Again,  the 
crystal  is  terminated  as  in  fig.  38,  or  in  a  modification 
of  that  form.  The  color  of  beryl  is  green,  passing 
into  blue,  and  sometimes  into  yellow.  Clear  beryl  of 
sea-green  color  is  called  aquamarine,  and  is  much  used 


MINERAL   CONSTITUTION"  OF   THE   EAKTH.  55 

for  gems.  Beryl  is  composed  of  silica  66.5,  alumina 
16.8,  glucina  15.5,  peroxyd  of  iron  0.6.  Hardness 
from  7  to  8. 

Emerald  is  a  rich,  green  variety  of  beryl  containing 
the  oxyd  of  chromium,  which  gives  it  its  color.  When 
perfectly  free  from  flaws,  the  emerald  affords  gems  of 
great  value.  The  finest  specimens  come  from  New 
Granada  and  Siberia. 

The  common  beryl  may  be  found  in  greater  or  less 
perfection  in  nearly  all  the  coarse  granite  rocks  of  New 
England.  Koyalston,  Mass.,  and  Alstead,  N.  II.,  have 
furnished  some  of  the  purest  specimens  of  any  of  our 
localities,  but  Acworth  and  Grafton,  N.  II.,  have  fur- 
nished the  largest.  One  crystal  from  Acworth  is  4 
feet  long,  and  weighs  240  pounds.  The  writer  has  a 
large  crystal  of  beryl  found  loose  in  the  soil,  on  a  hill 
in  the  south-west  part  of  Marlow,  N.  H.  The  Eoyalston 
and  Alstead  beryls  afford  gems  of  great  beauty. 

The  largest  beryl  in  the  world  is  embedded  in 
quartz  and  feldspar  on  Mt.  Alger,  in  Grafton,  N.  II. 
It  is  owned  by  Francis  Alger,  Esq.,  of  Boston,  to 
whom  I  am  indebted  for  these  facts  about  it.  The 
entire  length  of  the  crystal  is  9  feet ;  its  circumference 
at  the  largest  part  nearly  12  feet ;  and  its  weight  not 
less  than  5  tons.  In  Mr.  Alger's  splendid  collection, 
there  is  a  crystal  of  beryl  from  this  same  locality, 
weighing  2J  tons,  some  portions  of  which  are  trans- 
parent and  very  beautiful. 


56  MINERAL   CONSTITUTION   OF   THE   EAKTH. 

Chrysoberyl,  found  at  Haddam,  Conn.,  in  tabular 
crystals,  is  closely  related  to  beryl. 

ZIKCON  occurs  in  square  prisms,  terminated  with 
four-sided  pyramids.  Its  color  is  red,  brown,  or  gray. 
Its  hardness  is  7.5.  It  is  found  in  granite,  gneiss, 
granular  limestone,  and  volcanic  rocks.  Clear  red 
specimens  are  called  Hyacinth.  Zircon  is  found  at 
Litchfield,  Me.,  Hammond,  N.  Y.,  Franklin,  N.  J.,  and 
at  Green  Eiver,  Henderson  county,  N.  C.  At  the 
latter  place  the  crystals  occur  loose  in  the  soil,  and  in 
the  greatest  abundance.  Clear  specimens  of  this 
mineral  are  used  for  gems,  and  for  jewelling  watches. 


METALS   AND   METALLIC   ORES. 

Metals  are  found  either  native  or  in  the  state  of  ores. 
A  native  metal  is  pure,  or  simply  mixed  with  other  sub- 
stances, but  not  chemically  combined  with  them.  An 
ore  is  a  metal  chemically  combined  with  one  or  more 
substances,  such  as  oxygen,  sulphur,  carbonic  acid, 
arsenic,  silica,  &c. 

Metals  occur  in  layers  or  beds ;  in  veins  intersecting 
the  rocks;  and  disseminated  through  the  rocks  in 
grains  and  crystals. 

The  metals  which  will  here  be  briefly  noticed,  are 
Iron,  Manganese,  Lead,  Zinc,  Copper,  Eutile,  Molybde- 
num, Tin,  Silver,  and  Grold. 

IRON   is   found   native   only   in   meteorites,    those 


MINERAL    CONSTITUTION    OF    THE    EARTH.  57 

wonderful  bodies  wliicli  occasionally  fall  to  our  earth. 
In  combinations  it  is  abundant,  and  widely  diffused 
among  the  rock  formations  of  our  globe. 

Oxyd  of  Iron,  already  noticed,  is  the  most  abundant 
and  most  important  ore  of  this  metal.  There  are  three 
prominent  varieties  of  oxyd  of  iron — the  Magnetic, 
the  Specular,  and  the  Brown  Iron  Ore. 

Magnetic  Iron  Ore  occurs  both  in  beds,  and  in 
octahedral  and  dodecahedral  crystals.  Vast  beds  of 
this  ore  occur  in  New  Jersey,  Pennsylvania,  New 
York,  New  Hampshire,  and  in  many  other  parts  of 
the  United  States.  The  crystals  are  very  common 
among  the  older  rocks.  At  Amherst,  N.  H.,  the 
granite  rocks  abound  with  crystals  of  this  mineral, 
which  combine  both  the  octahedron  and  the  dodecahe- 
dron. This  ore  is  extensively  worked  for  the  manu- 
facture of  iron.  Its  composition  is  iron  71.8,  and 
oxygen  28.2.  Hardness  from  3.5  to  4.5.  Lodestone 
is  magnetic  iron,  which  exhibits  magnetic  polarity. 
Such  specimens  are  not  unfrequently  found  in  the 
iron  regions. 

Specular  Iron  Ore  is  so  called  from  the  high  lustre 
of  some  of  its  varieties.  Micaceous  iron  is  a  foliated 
variety  of  this  ore.  Some  of  the  varieties  do  not 
exhibit  lustre.  Such  are  red  hematite,  red  ochre,  reel 
chalk,  and  clay  iron.  Specular  iron  may  be  dis- 
tinguished by  its  red  color  when  pulverized.  It 
occurs  in  great  abundance  in  the  rocks  of  all  ages. 


58          MINERAL   CONSTITUTION   OF   THE   EARTH. 

It  abounds  in  Pennsylvania ;  and  Pilot  Knob  and  Iron 
Mountain,  in  Missouri,  are  mainly  specular  iron.  At 
the  island  of  Elba  it  is  obtained  in  the  most  splendid 
crystals.  The  crystals  have  a  hardness  from  5.5  to  6.5. 

This  ore  is  extensively  mined  for  the  production  of 
iron,  but  is  less  easily  worked  than  the  magnetic. 

Brown  Iron  Ore  is  one  of  the  most  abundant  and 
one  of  the  most  valuable  iron  ores  in  this  country. 
It  occurs  both  massive,  and  in  nodular,  botryoidal, 
and  stalactitic  forms;  and  is  generally  called  Brown 
Hematite.  Specimens  often  exhibit  a  beautiful  irides- 
cence. Brown  and  yellow  ochre,  and  bog  iron  ore, 
are  varieties  of  this  mineral.  Brown  iron  ore  is 
abundant  in  Pennsylvania,  New  York,  Massachusetts, 
and  Connecticut ;  also  in  the  Carolinas,  and  other 
states  South  and  West. 

There  are  many  interesting  iron  ores  besides  the 
oxyds. 

Spathic  Iron,  or  Carbonate  of  Iron,  is  another  im- 
portant ore  for  the  manufacture  of  both  iron  and  steel. 
It  often  resembles  calc  spar,  but  may  be  distinguished 
from  the  latter  by  its  greater  weight.  Its  color  is 
light  brown.  The  composition  of  spathic  iron  is 
protoxyd  of  iron  61.37,  and  carbonic  acid  38.63. 
Hardness  from  3  to  4.5.  Spathic  iron  abounds  in  the 
coal  regions  of  Pennsylvania,  and  also  occurs  in  New 
York,  Vermont,  and  Connecticut.  Specimens  of  this 
ore  are  readily  obtained  at  Sterling,  Mass. 


MINERAL   CONSTITUTION  OF   THE   EARTH.          59 

Some  idea  of  the  vast  amount  of  iron  in  the  United 
States  may  be  formed  from  the  fact  that  the  1200  iron 
works  in  our  country  produce  an  aggregate  of  850,000 
tons  annually. 

Iron  Pyrites,  or  Sulphuret  of  Iron,  is  disseminated 
in  grains  and  crystals  through  the  rocks  of  almost 
every  region.  It  also  occurs  in  extended  masses,  as 
at  Str afford,  Yt.,  where  there  is  a  veiA  four  rods  wide. 
It  crystallizes  in  cubes  and  in  modifications  of  the  cube. 
This  mineral  somewhat  resembles  gold,  for  which  it 
has  been  so  often  mistaken  that  it  is  familiarly  known 
under  the  name  FooTs  Gold.  It  may  be  readily  dis- 
tinguished from  gold  by  its  greater  hardness  and 
brittleness,  and  by  the  sulphur  odor  which  it  gives 
off  when  heated.  Hardness  from  6  to  .6.5.  The  com- 
position of  iron  pyrites  is  iron  45.74,  sulphur  54.26. 

.This  species  of  iron  ore  js  not  worked  for  iron,  on 
account  of  the  difficulty  of  separating  the  iron  from 
the  sulphur;  but  it /is  extensively  used  for  the  manu- 
facture of  green  vitriol,  or  copperas,  sulphuric  acid, 
and  alum.  Sulphur  is  also  sometimes  obtained  from  it 

Arsenical  Iron  Pyrites  differs  from  the  last  in  being  of 
a  silvery  white  color,  crystallizing  in  prisms — though 
mostly  found  massive — and  in  giving  off  arsenical 
fumes  when  heated,  f  It  is  composed  of  iron  36.0, 
arsenic  42.9,  sulphur  21.1.  Hardness  from  5.5  to  6. 

Chr»mate  of  Iron  is  an  ore  of  a  dark  brown  color, 
usually  found  in  serpentine,  and  used  in  the  manu- 
facture of  paint. 


60  MINERAL    CONSTITUTION   OF   THE   EAKTH. 

GALENA,  or  Sulphuret  of  Lead,  occurs  in  granite, 
limestone,  clay  slates,  and  sandstones.  It  crystallizes 
in  the  form  of  cubes,  and  readily  breaks  into  the  same 
forms.  The  composition  of  galena  is  lead  86.55,  sul- 
phur 13.45.  Hardness  2.5.  This  mineral  generally 
contains  more  or  less  silver.  The  most  extensive 
mines  of  this  mineral  in  this  country  are  at  Galena,  111., 
and  the  portions  of  Iowa  and  Wisconsin  adjoining. 

Phosphate  of  Lead  is  a  variety  crystallizing  in  six- 
sided  prisms,  or  occurring  in  botryoidal  masses.  Its 
color  is  green,  and  the  composition  differs  from  galena 
in  comprising  phosphoric  acid  instead  of  sulphur. 

Carbonate  of  Lead  occurs  both  massive  and  crystal- 
lized. Its  colors  are  brown  and  white.  Both  this 
mineral  and  the  last  are  found  in  great  perfection  at 
the  "Wheatly  mines,  Phoenixville,  Pa. 

ZINC  is  never  found  in  a  native  state,  but  combined 
with  sulphur,  oxygen,  carbonic  acid,  or  silica.  Sul- 
phuret of  Zinc,  or  Blende,  is  of  a  wax  yellow  color, 
sometimes  brown,  and  occurs  with  galena.  By  the 
miners  it  is  called  Black  Jack.  Hardness  from  3.5 
to  4. 

Red  Oxyd  of  Zinc  occurs  in  foliated  masses,  of  a 
bright  red  color.  It  is  abundant  at  Franklin  and 
-Sterling,  K.  J.,  associated  with  calc  spar.  It  is  exten- 
sively mined  for  the  manufacture  of  zinc  and  paint. 

The  silicate  and  carbonates  of  zinc  are  important 
ores  for  the  production  of  the  zinc  of  commerce. 


MINEKAL   CONSTITUTION    OF   THE   EARTH.  61 

COFFEE  occurs  both  native  and  as  an  ore.  Native 
copper  is  found  mostly  near  rocks  of  igneous  origin. 
It  occurs  both  in  octahedral  crystals  and  in  irregular 
masses.  Hardness  from  2.5  to  3.  Native  copper 
occurs  more  abundantly  in  the  vicinity  of  Lake  Supe- 
rior than  in  any  other  portion  of  the  world.  One  mass 
discovered  there  was  50  feet  long,  6  feet  deep,  and  6 
inches  thick.  •  .  I 

Yitreous  copper,  gray  copper,  red  copper,  and 
malachite,  are  ores  of  this  mineral. 

COFFER  PYRITES,  or  sulphuret  of  copper  and  iron, 
occurs  both  massive  and  in  crystals.  This  ore  resem- 
bles iron  pyrites,  with  which  it  is  generally  associated, 
and,  like  the  latter,  it  also  resembles  gold.  It  is, 
however,  of  a  deeper  yellow  than  iron  pyrites,  and 
much  softer.  The  readiness  with  which  it  crumbles, 
and  the  sulphur  fumes  it  gives  off  when  heated,  distin- 
guish it  from  gold.  Its  composition  is  sulphur  34.9, 
copper  34.6,  iron  30.5. 

Sulphuret  of  copper  is  common  in  the  United  States, 
and  is  extensively  mined  in  England  and  on  the  Con- 
tinent. In  Cornwall  12,000  tons  of  pure  copper  are 
obtained  from  this  ore  annually.  Besides  yielding 
copper,  it  is  extensively  employed  for  the  manufacture 
-of  blue  vitriol,  or  sulphate  of  copper. 

Green  Malachite,  a  green  carbonate  of  copper,  is  a 
variety  of  great  beauty  and  interest.  It  generally 
occurs  in  botryoidal  masses — sometimes  fibrous — in 
the  copper  regions,  and  is  readily  distinguished  by  its 


62  MINERAL   CONSTITUTION   OF  THE   EARTH. 

green  color,  and  its  perfect  solution  and  effervescence 
with  nitric  acid. 

Malachite  originates  from  the  decomposition  of  other 
ores  of  copper.  It  is  slightly  soluble  in  water,  and  has 
evidently  been  deposited  as  stalactites  and  stalagmites. 
Its  composition  is  oxyd  of  copper  70.5,  carbonic  acid 
18.0,  water  11. 

Malachite  is  found  at  Morgantown,  Berks  county, 
Pa.,  and  in  the  copper-mines  of  the  West.  The  finest 
specimens  come  from  the  Ural  Mountains.  A  mass 
was  found  there  18  feet  long  and  9  feet  wide,  and 
estimated  to  weigh  a  half  million  of  pounds.  Mala- 
chite is  much  used  for  inlaid  work  and  for  jewellery. 

EUTILE,  or  the  Oxyd  of  Titanium,  is  a  reddish 
brown  mineral,  with  a  metallic  lustre,  and  usually  in 
striated  crystals,  embedded  in  granite,  gneiss,  or  mica 
slate.  It  is  employed  in  coloring  mineral  teeth,  and 
in  painting  upon  porcelain. 

Sometimes  specimens  of  limpid  quartz  are  found 
penetrated  in  every  direction  by  long  needle-like 
crystals  of  this  mineral.  Such  stones,  when  polished, 
are  very  beautiful. 

MOLYBDENUM  occurs  combined  with  sulphur,  and 
deserves  notice  here,  as  it  closely  resembles  some 
varieties  of  plumbago,  but  may  be  distinguished  from 
the  latter  by  its  paler  color,  and  by  its  sulphur  fumes 
when  heated.  It  occurs  at  Westmoreland,  N".  H.,  and 
in  many  other  places. 

TIN  ORE,  or  Oxyd  of  Tin,  occurs  in  veins  in  the 


MINERAL   CONSTITUTION   OF   THE   EAETH.  63 

older  rocks.  It  is  found  both  massive  and  in  crystals, 
which  resemble  those  of  black  garnet.  Except  in 
Jackson,  N.  H.,  where  there  is  reason  to  believe  it 
occurs  to  a  considerable  extent,  it  is  found  only 
sparingly  in  the  United  States.  Cornwall,  England, 
Saxony,  Austria,  China,  and  the  East  Indies,  comprise 
the  great  tin  localities  of  the  world. 

SILVER  occurs  both  native  and  in  numerous  com- 
binations.  Native  silver  is  often  found  forming  an 
alloy  with  gold ;  and  is  also  frequently  disseminated 
among  native  copper,  especially  that  of  the  Lake 
Superior  region.  Native  silver  crystallizes  in  octahe- 
drons. 

Sulphuret  of  Silver,  Sulphuret  of  Silver  and  Anti- 
mony, and  Chlorid  of  Silver,  are  the  principal  ores 
worked  for  this  metal  in  South  America,  Mexico,  and 
Europe,  whence  most  of  the  silver  is  obtained. 

GOLD  is  always  found  native — with  the  single  ex- 
ception that  it  sometimes  occurs  combined  with  a  rare 
substance,  called  Tellurium.  Though  forming  no 
chemical  combinations,  it  often  occurs  alloyed  with 
silver,  or  copper,  or  both  together. 

Gold  is  found  in  grains,  flakes,  and  masses,  in  the 
sands  which  the  rivers  bring  down  from  the  moun- 
tains ;  it  is  also  disseminated  in  quartz  veins. 

Gold  is  readily  distinguished  from  pyrites,  with 
which  it  is  often  associated,  by  the  facility  with  which 
it  may  be  cut  into  slices,  and  flattened  under  the 


64  MINEEAL   CONSTITUTION   OF   THE   EAKTH, 

hammer.  Its  hardness  is  only  2.5  or  3.  Pyrites,  on 
the  contrary,  cannot  be  cut,  and  it  crumbles  under  the 
hammer,  and  gives  off  sulphur  fumes  when  heated. 
Gold  crystallizes  in  octahedrons,  and  occasionally 
beautiful  specimens  are  found. 

Our  limited  space  has  allowed  the  statement  of  only 
some  of  the  most  important  facts  about  the  minerals 
noticed  in  the  previous  pages.  For  further  informa- 
tion concerning  them,  and  for  a  full  description  of 
others  which  are  not  mentioned  in  this  treatise,  the 
student  is  referred  to  Dana's  works  on  Mineralogy, 
also  to  those  of  Shepard  on  the  same  subject. 

In  concluding  this  chapter,  let  me  urge  the  import- 
ance of  collecting  specimens  of  all  the  minerals  which 
can  be  found.  For  after  all,  it  is  only  by  collecting 
and  studying  the  objects  themselves  that  the  student 
will  make  any  considerable  progress  in  becoming 
acquainted  with  the  minerals  of  our  globe.  Although 
books  may  aid,  the  best  descriptions  fall  far  short  of 
the  reality.  Let  us  go  to  the  fields,  to  the  mountains, 
to  the  quarry,  to  the  canal  and  railway  excavation, 
and  there  examine  carefully  every  mineral  substance, 
and  secure  a  specimen  of  each  for  future  study. 

What  a  pleasure  it  is  to  bring  to  light  those  shining 
crystals  which  lie  hidden  in  the  earth  upon  which  we 
tread !  How  full  of  instruction  they  are  to  him  who 
studies  them  in  the  right  spirit  I 


CHAPTER  Y. 

THE  ROCKS  WHICH  COMPOSE  THE  EAKTH. 


SECTION  I. 
TWO   GKEAT   CLASSES   RECOGNISED. 

THE  last  chapter  was  devoted  to  a  brief  description 
of  the  most  common  minerals.  This  chapter  describes 
the  rocks  of  our  globe. 

The  rocks  which  compose  the  earth  may  be  divided 
into  two  classes. — the  Stratified,  and  the  Unstratified. 

Fig.  39. 


Unstratified.  Stratified. 

Stratified  and  Unstratified  Rocks. 

STRATIFIED  ROCKS  are  those  which  occur  in  layers 

6*  E  (65) 


66  TWO    CLASSES   KECOGNISED. 

or  strata;  parallel  to  one  another,  whether  horizontal, 
inclined,  or  tortuous. 

UNSTRATIFIED  ROCKS  do  not  exhibit  layers,  but  are 
massive. 

These  two  classes  of  rocks  evidently  had  a  different 
origin ;  or,  at  least,  they  have  been  subject  to  differ- 
ent influences.  If  we  examine  the  loose  materials, 
such  as  sand,  clay,  and  gravel,  that  have  accumulated 
at  the  bottom  of  a  pool,  pond,  or  lake,  we  find  them 
arranged  in  beds  or  layers.  The  streams  carry  down 
the  loose  materials  from  the  highlands,  and  deposit 
them  in  the  water  basins.  Thus  layer  after  layer  is 
spread  out,  on  the  shores  and  bottoms  of  ponds,  lakes, 
and  oceans.  Such  deposits  only  need  hardening  to 
form  stratified  rocks.  The  ancient  lakes  and  oceans 
were  filled  with  layers  of  loose  material,  just  as  those 
of  the  present  day  are  filling  up.  From  these  facts, 
and  many  others  which  will  appear  in  subsequent 
pages,  we  may  safely  conclude  that  the  stratified  rocks 
have  been  formed  in  water  basins,  in  the  form  of  mud, 
sand,  gravel,  &c.,  and  have  been  hardened  by  heat 
and  other  agencies.  The  stratified  rocks  are  thus  of 
aqueous  origin. 

On  the  other  hand,  examinations  have  shown  con- 
clusively that  all  the  unstratified  rocks  have  been 
melted,  and  therefore  are  said  to  be  of  igneous  origin. 
Some  of  them  are  the  result  of  the  cooling  of  the 
original  igneous  mass;  for  it  is  believed  that  the 


TWO   CLASSES  KECOGNISED.  67 

whole  earth  was  once  in  a  melted  state,  and  that  its 
interior  is  now  in  that  condition;  others  have  been 
produced  by  the  remelting  of  aqueous  rocks;  and 
others  still  have  been  poured  out  from  the  heated 
interior  of  the  earth. 

All  the  unstratified  rocks  which  have  resulted  from 
the  remelting  of  aqueous  rocks,  as  well  as  those 
aqueous  rocks  which  still  retain  their  stratification, 
but  have  become  crystalline,  or  otherwise  much 
changed  by  heat,  are  called  Metamorphic  Eocks. 

Undoubtedly  the  first  solid  rocks  formed  were 
unstratified,  and  resulted  from  the  cooling  of  molten 
matter.  But  ever  since  water  has  occupied  the  sur- 
face of  the  earth — for  the  water  must  have  been  held 
in  a  state  of  vapor  while  the  earth  was  in  a  molten 
condition — both  stratified  and  unstratified  rocks  have 
been  formed  in  every  geological  period.  While  water 
has  been  producing  one  class,  heat  has  been  producing 
the  other.  Hence,  we  not  only  find  unstratified  rocks 
beneath  the  stratified,  but  also  cutting  across  both 
the  stratified  and  the  unstratified  rocks,  and  some- 
times in  vast  masses  overlying  the  stratified  rocks. 
The  illustration  at  the  close  of  the  Seventh  Chapter, 
shows  the  relative  position  of  the  two  great  classes 
of  rocks  mentioned  above. 


68  UNSTRATIFIED    KOCKS. 

SECTION  II. 
DESCRIPTION   OF   THE   UNSTRATIFIED   ROCKS. 

The  principal  unstratified  rocks  are  Granite,  Sye- 
nite, Porphyry,  Greenstone,  Basalt,  Trachyte,  Amyg- 
daloid, and  Modern  Lavas.  The  varieties  of  each  are 
very  numerous. 

GRANITE  is  composed  of  quartz,  feldspar,  and  mica, 
promiscuously  mixed  together.  It  is  coarse  or  fine, 
according  to  the  state  of  its  constituent  minerals, 
which  in  some  cases  are  so  fine,  that  the  different 
kinds  are  scarcely  distinguishable ;  in  others,  the 
several  constituents  are  in  large  irregular  crystals  or 
masses,  a  foot  or  more  in  diameter.  Between  these 
extremes,  every  possible  grade  may  be  found. 

Granite  is  of  every  shade  of  color,  but  most  com- 
monly gray.  When  it  contains  distinct  crystals  of 
feldspar,  no  matter  how  irregular,  it  is  called  Porphy- 
ritic  Granite,  which  is  very  abundant  in  many  parts 
of  New  England. 

Graphic  Granite  consists  of  quartz  and  feldspar, 
the  former  being  generally  dark-colored  or  smoky, 
and  penetrating  the  feldspar  in  long  irregular  crystals 
or  masses,  mostly  parallel  to  one  another.  When  the 
specimen  is  broken  at  right  angles  to  the  direction  in 


UNSTRATIFIED   KOCKS. 


69 


which  tlie  quartz  penetrates,  it  gives  a  surface  some- 
what resembling  a  page  of  written  characters. 

Fig.  40. 


Perfect  copy  of  a  fragment  of  Graphic  Granite,  Alstead,  N.  H. 

Granite  is  very  abundant.  It  is  one  of  the  lowest 
rocks  with  which  we  are  acquainted,  and  it  also 
appears  at  the  surface  in  mountain  masses,  and  in 
veins  traversing  other  rocks. 

From  the  crystalline  structure  of  granite,  and  the 
position  in  which  it  is  found,  there  is  no  doubt  but  it 
has  been  melted.  It  is  doubtful  whether  any  of  the 
granites  which  we  are  permitted  to  observe,  are  the 
direct  result  of  the  cooling  of  the  original  melted 


70  UNSTRATIFIED   EOCKS. 

matter  of  our  globe.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  quite 
certain  that  many  of  the  granites  have  resulted  from 
the  remelting,  and  reconsolidation  of  stratified  rocks. 
Therefore,  while  some  granites  may  be  the  oldest 
rocks,  others  are  more  recent  than  some  of  the 
stratified  rocks. 

The  relative  age  of  granite,  as  well  as  that  of  all 
unstratified  rocks,  is  to  be  determined  by  its  position 
in  respect  to  stratified  deposits.  Veins  or  dikes  of 
granite,  varying  from  an  inch  to  many  yards  in  width, 
are  abundant,  intersecting  all  kinds  of  rocks,  and  in 
all  directions.  Some  of  these  undoubtedly  are  veins 
of  segregation, — that  is,  accumulations  of  matter  de- 
rived from  the  containing  rock.  Other  veins  have 
probably  resulted  from  aqueous  infiltration  of  the 
matter  into  an  open  fissure.  Other  veins  still  are 
fissures  which  have  been  filled  with  melted  matter 
injected  from  the  depths  below,  or  furnished  by  some 
adjacent  igneous  mass.  These  last  are  called  veins 
of  injection,  and  are  generally  the  best  defined ;  but 
only  extensive  study  in  the  field  will  enable  the  stu- 
dent to  distinguish  with  certainty  one  kind  from 
another. 

Fig.  41  represents  two  granite  veins  in  gneiss,  Fair- 
haven,  Mass.  Here  we  have  the  record  of  at  least 
three  events.  First,  the  formation  of  the  gneiss; 
secondly,  the  injection  of  the  small  vein ;  and  thirdly, 
the  injection  of  the  large  vein  right  across  the  small 


UNSTKATIFIED   BOCKS. 


71 


one.  It  is  plain  that  the  vein  which  is  cut  off  is  older 
than  the  one  which  cuts  it.  Keeping  these  facts  in 
mind,  the  relative  ages  of  veins  may  be  determined, 
no  matter  how  numerous  they  are,  or  how  much  they 
intersect  one  another. 

Fig.  41. 


Two  Granite  Veins  in  Gneiss,  Fairhaven,  Mass. 

The  accompanying  cut  shows  a  vein  or  dike  of 
injected  granite,  in  hornblende  slate,  at  Williams 
Hill,  South  Acworth,  N.  H.  Near  the  road  this  vein 
is  15  or  20  feet  wide,  but  towards  the  summit  of 
the  hill  it  widens,  attaining  a  width  of  90  or  100  feet. 
A  little  distance  above,  where  the  two  persons  are 
represented  as  standing,  there  is  a  large  mass  of  the 
hornblende  slate  imbedded  in  the  granite.  This  is 
indicated  in  the  cut.  The  disturbance  of  the  horn- 
blende slate,  which  is  considerably  bent  on  both  sides 


72 


UN3TRATIFIED   ROCKS. 


of  the  vein,  and  the  position  of  the  imbedded  mass, 
leave  little  room  to  doubt  that  this  hill  was  formed 
by  the  protrusion  of  the  granite  vein  in  a  melted 
state.  Similar  cases  are  common  in  many  parts  of 
New  England,  especially  in  New  Hampshire. 

Fig.  42. 


Granite  Vein,  Williams  Hill,  Acworth,  N.  H. 

On  the  other  side  of  this  hill,  just  opposite  where 
the  horse  and  carriage  are  standing,  is  the  celebrated 
beryl  locality.  The  beryls  occur  in  this  vein  of 
granite,  but  mostly  beneath  a  vast  mass  of  quartz. 

Many  interesting  minerals  are  found  in  granite,  as 


UNSTKATIFIED   BOOKS.  73 

the  student  lias  already  noticed  in  our  remarks  on 
minerals  in  the  previous  chapter.  Coarse  granite 
almost  everywhere  yields  beryl,  tourmaline,  and 
garnet  in  greater  or  less  perfection. 

Granite  is  extensively  quarried  for  building  pur- 
poses. It  is  very  abundant,  and  of  fine  quality,  in 
Massachusetts  and  New  Hampshire. 

SYENITE  is  composed  of  quartz,  feldspar,  and  horn- 
blende— the  latter,  however,  being  sometimes  want- 
ing. The  term  granite  is  often  applied  indiscrimi- 
nately to  this  and  the  preceding  rock.  The  celebrated 
Quincy  Granite,  so  called,  is  syenite.  Sometimes 
hornblende,  as  it  occurs  in  syenite,  resembles  black 
mica,  but  may  be  distinguished  from  the  latter  by  its 
brittleness,  and  by  not  separating  into  plates  like 
mica. 

The  remarks  made  about  the  origin  of  granite  are 
for  the  most  part  applicable  to  syenite.  While  some 
of  the  syenites  may  belong  to  the  oldest  rocks,  others 
have  resulted  from  the  remelting  of  stratified  deposits, 
and  are  thus  true  metamorphic  rocks.  Throughout 
the  rocky  portions  of  Eastern  Massachusetts,  the 
stratified  rocks  are  found  passing,  by  insensible  grada- 
tions, into  syenite,  showing  conclusively  the  meta- 
morphic origin  of  the  latter. 

Syenite  is  very  extensively  employed  for  building 
purposes.  The  syenite  of  Quincy,  Mass.,  may  be 
found  in  the  structures  of  almost  every  city  in  the 


74  UNSTEATIFIED   EOCKS. 

Union.     The  Custom  House  at  Boston,  and  Bunker 
Hill  Monument,  are  built  of  this  rock. 

POKPHYKY  is  a  compact  feldspathic  rock,  with 
crystals  of  feldspar  disseminated  through  it.  Por- 
phyry occurs  of  various  colors,  but  purple,  brown, 
and  green  are  the  most  common.  The  porphyry  used 
by  the  ancients  was  purple.  This  rock  takes  a  good 
polish,  and  is  much  used  in  some  parts  of  the  world 
for  ornamental  and  architectural  purposes.  It  is- 
abundant  on  the  coast  of  Massachusetts.  The  ac- 
companying cut  represents  a  fragment  broken  from 
a  dike,  near  the  Black  Eock  House,  Cohasset,  where 
good  specimens  are  easily  obtained. 

Fig.  43. 


Fragment  01  Porphyry,  Cohasset,  Mass. 


Porphyry  pebbles  of  various  color  may  be  obtained 
in  any  quantity  on  the  beach  at  Nahant. 

GEEENSTONE  is  a  compact  rock,  composed  mostly 
of  hornblende  and  feldspar.  Its  color  varies  from 
dark  green  to  brown  or  black.  When  hornblende 


UNSTKATIFIED   KOCKS.  75 

predominates,  it  is  sometimes  called  hornblende  rock. 
It  is  found  penetrating  rocks  of  different  ages,  and  in 
some  cases  it  has  flowed  out  over  the  surface.  This, 
and  the  three  following — Basalt,  Trachyte,  and 
Amygdaloid  in  all  their  varieties  —  are  called  Trap 
JRocks.  Greenstone  and  basalt  often  assume  a  columnar 
structure,  and  they  give  rise  to  some  of  the  most 
interesting  scenery.  Mt.  Tom  and  Mt.  Holyoke  in 
Massachusetts,  and  the  Palisades  along  the  Hudson 
River,  are  greenstone. 

Fig.  44  shows  the  columnar  appearance  on  the  side 
of  Holyoke,  where  it  slopes  beneath  the  waters  of  the 
Connecticut.  Professor  Hitchcock  long  ago  named 
this  interesting  place  Titan's  Pier. 

Fig.  44. 


Titan's  Pier,  Mt.  Holyoke,  Mass. 

BASALT  consists  of  augite  and  feldspar,  and  closely 


76 


UNSTRATIFIED    ROCKS. 


resembles  greenstone.  It  is  compact,  and  of  a  dark 
color.  It  often  exhibits  a  columnar  structure.  Fine 
examples  occur  along  the  Columbia  river,  in  Oregon, 
and  on  the  north  shore  of  Lake  Superior.  Fingal's 
Cave,  on  the  island  of  Staffa,  and  the  Giant's  Causeway, 
Ireland,  afford  wonderful  exhibitions  of  columnar 
basalt. 


Fingal's  Cave,  Island  of  Staffa. 


In  many  cases  the  columns  of  basalt  are  jointed  or 
divided  into  sections,  usually  with  the  upper  part 
concave,  and  the  lower  convex,  and  fitting  exactly 
together. 


UNSTRATTFIED   ROCKS.  77 

The  columnar  structure  of  the  trap  rocks  is  be- 
lieved to  be  due  to  the  tendency  of  the  matter,  when 
cooling,  to  assume  the  globular  form.  These  globes 
press  against  one  another,  and  the  columnar  structure 
is  the  result.  The  experiment  of  Watt,  who  melted 
700  pounds  of  basalt,  and  allowed  the  same  to  cool 
slowly,  seems  to  confirm  this  view  of  the  case. 

TRACHYTE  is  a  gray,  rough  mineral,  of  volcanic 
origin.  It  is  mainly  composed  of  feldspar,  with 
crystals  of  the  same  scattered  through  it.  Sometimes 
it  contains  hornblende  and  mica. 

AMYGDALOID  is  a  term  applied  to  any  of  the  trap 
rocks,  filled  with  cavities,  either  empty  or  containing 
quartz,  spar,  epidote,  or  other  minerals. 

Modern  Lavas  will  be  described  in  a  subsequent 
chapter,  when  speaking  of  volcanoes. 

All  the  trap  rocks,  and  much  of  the  porphyry, 
have  been  forced  up,  while  in  a  melted  state,  from 
the  heated  interior  of  our  globe.  Veins  or  dikes  of 
these  rocks  are  abundant  in  many  parts  of  the  world. 
They  occur  from  a  fraction  of  an  inch  in  width,  to 
those  which  form  mountain  masses  like  Mt.  Tom,  and 
Holyoke,  the  Palisades,  and  the  Island  of  Staffa, 
alluded  to  above.  Trap  and  porphyry  dikes  are 
abundant  on  the  coast  of  New  England,  especially  in 
Massachusetts.  They  traverse  the  rocks  in  every 
direction  at  Cohasset,  Nahant,  Lynn,  Salem,  'Beverly, 
MarbleheacL  and  in  many  other  places.  One  dike, 


78 


UNSTRATIFIED   KOCKS. 


near  Pulpit  Rock,  at  Nahant,  is  34  feet  wide.  The 
following  cut  represents  some  very  interesting  exam- 
ples in  the  metamorphic  rocks  at  Cohasset. 

Fig.  46. 


Dikes  in  Syenite,  Cohasset,  Mass. 

The  largest  dike  is  20  feet  wide ;  the  others  vary 
from  5  feet  to  10.  The  one  on  the  extreme  left  is 
porphyry  ;  the  others  are  greenstone  ;  the  three 
smaller  ones  being  very  dark -colored  on  their 
weathered  surfaces.  A  mass  of  the  syenite  is  im- 
bedded in  the  right-hand  dike,  as  is  indicated  in  the 
cut.  Cases  of  this  kind  are  not  uncommon ;  and  such 
a  mass  shows  that  it  became  imbedded  while  the  dike 
was  in  a  state  of  fusion.  The  mass  itself  generally 
gives  evidence  of  having  been  fused  upon  its  edges, 
thus,  often  passing  into  the  matter  of  the  dike  by  an 
insensible  gradation. 


UNSTRATIFIED   BOOKS.  79 

In  the  case  represented  by  Fig.  46,  above,  we 
have  the  record  of  several  events.  First,  the  forma- 
tion of  the  syenite;  secondly,  the  syenite  was  rent, 
and  the  fissure  filled  with  the  porphyry  dike ;  thirdly, 
the  syenite  was  rent  across  the  porphyry,  and  melted 
rock  flowed  up  forming  a  dike  20  feet  wide ;  and 
fourthly,  three  fissures  opened  across  the  large  dike, 
and  melted  rock  flowed  in  and  filled  the  rents. 

These  injections  of  melted  matter  change,  more 
or  less,  the  rocks  through  which  they  pass.  It  is 
probable  that  the  metamorphic  state  of  the  rocks  at 
Nahant,  Cohasset,  and  many  other  places,  is  due  in 
part,  if  not  wholly,  to  the  heating  which  they  expe- 
rienced during  the  formation  of  the  dikes. 

At  the  lime  quarry  in  Rockland,  Maine,  a  trap  dike 
has  changed  the  gray,  coarse  limestone  near  it,  into 
white  compact  marble.  Any  number  of  similar  facts 
might  be  cited;  but,  now  that  the  attention  of  the 
student  is  turned  to  the  subject,  many  cases  will  come 
under  his  own  observation. 

The  attention  has  already  been  called  to  the  rela- 
tive ages  of  veins  or  dikes,  and  in  closing  this  section, 
it  is  only  necessary  to  explain  one  case,  a  little  more 
complicated  than  those  referred  to  in  the  previous 
pages,  in  order  to  prepare  the  student  to  begin  suc- 
cessfully the  study  of  this  part  of  the  subject  in  the 
field.  Take  the  case  illustrated  by  Fig.  47.  The 


80 


UNSTKATIFIED   BOCKS. 


vein  or  dike  e  cuts  off  all  the  others,  and  is  therefore 
the  newest.  The  vein  d  cuts  off  c,  and  the  latter  cuts 
off  a  and  b,  and  b  cuts  off  a  •  therefore,  d  is  the  next 
older  than  e,  c  the  next  older  than  d,  b  the  next  older 
than  c,  and  a  is  the  oldest  of  the  five  veins.  Thus, 
the  relative  ages  of  veins  may  be  determined  ;  but 
the  length  of  time  between  the  formation  of  the  differ- 
ent ones  cannot  be  found  out. 


Fig.  47. 


d 


Relative  Age  of  Veins  or  Dikes. 


STRATIFIED  ROCKS.  81 


SECTION  III. 
DESCRIPTION"   OF   THE   STRATIFIED   ROCKS. 


.  After  a  brief  description  of  the  most  common 
stratified  rocks,  some  additional  remarks  will  be  made 
about  the  whole  class.  The  most  common  stratified 
rocks  are  Gneiss,  Mica  Slate,  Clay  Slate,  Hornblende 
Slate,  Talcose  Slate,  Quartz  Kock,  Sandstones,  Con- 
glomerates, and  Limestones. 

GNEISS  is  often  called  stratified  granite,  because  it 
appears  like  the  latter,  and  is  composed  of  the  same 
minerals.  Gneiss  is  very  abundant  in  all  parts  of 
New  England.  It  splits  readily  into  slabs,  and  is 
much  used  for  a  building  material,  and  for  flagging- 
stones. 

MICA  SLATE  resembles  gneiss ;  the  two  being  com- 
posed of  the  same  minerals ;  and  they  often  pass  into 
each  other  by  insensible  gradations.  Mica  slate,  how- 
ever, has  a  more  slaty  appearance  than  gneiss,  and 
generally  has  more  mica,  which  often  gives  the  rock 
a  very  glistening  appearance  when  a  fresh  surface  is 
exposed.  It  appears  in  numerous  varieties,  coarse, 
fine,  loose,  and  compact.  It  is  readily  distinguished 
by  its  slaty  structure,  and  by  the  scales  of  mica  which 
abound  in  it. 


82  STKATIFIED   KOCKS. 

Tourmaline,  garnet,  and  staurotide,  are  common  in 
this  rock.  At  Warwick,  Mass.,  a  mica  slate  is  filled 
with,  crystals  of  tourmaline,  of  great  beauty.  The 
crystals  occur  in  stellate  clusters.  At  Lisbon,  1ST.  H., 
the  mica  slate  abounds  with  perfect  crystals  of  garnet, 
and  staurotide. 

The  firm  varieties  of  mica  slate  are  used  for- flag- 
ging-stones; and  some  of  the  fine  varieties,  which 
contain  considerable  sand,  for  scythe-stones. 

HOKKBLENDE  SLATE  differs  from  mica  slate  in 
containing  hornblende  instead  of  mica.  In  general 
appearance,  it  often  resembles  mica  slate. 

TALCOSE  SLATE,  in  external  appearance,  resembles 
mica  slate,  but  contains  talc,  instead  of  mica,  which 
makes  it  feel  soapy.  When  chlorite  takes  the  place 
of  talc,  the  rock  is  called  chlorite  slate,  which  is  of  a 
dark  green  color.  Talcose  rock  is  quartz  containing 
talc,  and  constitutes  the  gold-bearing  rock  in  many 
parts  of  the  world. 

CLAY  SLATE,  or  argillaceous  slate,  is  a  stratified 
rock  in  which  clay  predominates,  and  which  often 
composes  almost  the  entire  rock.  The  color  is  like 
common  clay,  or  darker.  Roofing  slate  is  a  variety, 
and  is  extensively  quarried  in  Maine,  •  V ermont,  Massa- 
chusetts, and  in  various  parts  of  Great  Britain. 

QUAKTZ  EOCK  includes  those  stratified  deposits 
which  consist  mainly  of  quartz,  but  which  often 
contain  more  or  less  mica.  The  prevailing  colors  are 


STRATIFIED    ROCKS. 


83 


gray,  brown,  and  blue.  Quartz  rock  and  sandstones 
pass  into  each  other  by  insensible  gradations. 

SANDSTONE  is  composed  of  grains  of  sand  more  or 
less  firmly  united.  The  great  bulk  of  sandstone  is 
quartz.  The  colors  are  various.  A  dark  red  sand- 
stone, often  called  Freestone,  is  extensively  used  for 
building  purposes.  When  firm  sandstone  splits 
readily,  it  is  used  for  flagging. 

CONGLOMERATE,  or  Puddingstone,  consists  of  water- 
worn  pebbles  cemented  together,  thus  forming  a  com- 
pact rock.  Many  kinds  of  pebbles  are  often  asso- 
ciated in  the  same  mass.  In  some  cases  they  are 
small ;  in  others,  a  yard  in  diameter,  as  at  Newport, 
E.I. 

LIMESTONES  constitute  extensive  formations  in  all 
countries.  All  the  varieties  may  be  distinguished  by 
their  effervescence  with  acids.  The  important  uses 
of  limestone  have  already  been  pointed  out. 

As  remarked  on  a  previous  page,  the  stratified 
rocks  occur  in  layers  or  beds,  more  or  less  distinctly 

Fig.  48. 


Horizontal  Strata. 


84  STKATIFIED   BOOKS. 

marked.  These  layers  are  called  strata,  and  occur 
horizontal,  inclined  at  all  angles,  and  vertical;  also, 
bent,  folded,  and  contorted  in  every  possible  manner. 

The  exceedingly  thin  layers  which  stratified  rocks 
often  exhibit,  are  called  laminae.  Sometimes  they 
are  easily  separated ;  in  other  cases,  they  adhere  with 
great  firmness. 

It  is  common  to  find  both  the  stratified  and  the 
unstratified  rocks  traversed  by  divisional  planes  called 
joints.  In  stratified  rocks,  these  planes  are  either 
vertical,  or  oblique  to  the  planes  of  stratification. 
There  are  generally  two  sets  crossing  each  other  at 
angles  more  or  less  oblique,  thus  dividing  the  strata 
into  blocks  of  considerable  regularity.  Examples  of 
this  structure  are  so  numerous  in  all  parts  of  our 
country,  that  it  will  not  be  necessary  to  illustrate  it 
by  a  cut.  These  joints  are  of  the  highest  importance 
to  the  quarryman,  for  they  enable  him  to  work  a 
ledge  to  almost  any  extent  desirable,  without  blasting; 
and  the  blocks,  when  taken  from  the  quarry,  are  sure 
to  have  one  or  more  smooth  faces. 

Joints  traverse  conglomerates  just  as  well  as  other 
rocks,  cutting  right  through  the  hardest  quartz 
pebbles,  as  smoothly  as  through  the  softer  portions. 

When  strata  are  inclined,  the   angle  which   they 

"r> 

make  with  the  plane  of  the  horizon  is  called  the  dip 
of  the  strata.  Thus  the  strata  represented  by  Fig.  49 
dip  towards  the  north  at  an  angle  of  45  degrees. 


STRATIFIED   KOCKS. 
Fig.  49. 


85 


Strata  dipping  towards  the  North  at  an  angle  of  45O. 

The  direction  of  the  upturned  edges  of  strata,  on  a 
line  at  right  angles  to  the  direction  towards  which  the 
strata  dip,  is  called  the  strike.  That  is,  if  strata  dip 
towards  the  north  or  the  south,  the  strike  is  east  and 
west.  When  perfect  accuracy  is  required,  geologists 
determine  the  dip  by  an  instrument  called  the  cli- 
nometer, and  the  strike  by  means  of  a  compass.  The 
dip  may  be  determined  near  enough  for  all  ordinary 
purposes  by  standing  opposite  the  cliff,  and  placing 
the  hands  before  the  eyes  in  the  position  represented 
by  Fig.  50,  and  observing  whether  the  planes  of  the 

Fig.  50. 


Position  of  hands  so  as  to  form  right  angles. 


86  STKATIFIED   ROCKS. 

inclined  beds  bisect  the  right  angle  so  as  to  give  an 
angle  of  45 °,  or  whether  the  inclination  be  greater  or 
less  than  that  amount,  and  how  much. 

When  strata  dip  in  opposite  directions,  they  form 
an  anticlinal  axis,  as  at  A,  Fig.  51 ;  and  when  strata 
dip  towards  a  given  line,  from  opposite  directions, 
they  are  said  to  form  a  synclinal  axis,  as  at  B,  Fig.  51. 

Fig.  51. 


Showing  Anticlinal  and  Synclinal  Axis. 

Strata  sometimes  appear  horizontal,  when  highly 
inclined.  This  is  possible  when  a  vertical  wall  of  the 
edges  of  inclined  strata  is  presented,  as  is  often  the 
case  on  the  sea-coast.  Instances  of  this  kind  may  be 
observed  in  deep  gorges  in  the  mountains.  An  ex- 
amination of  the  strata  at  several  points  in  the  imme- 
diate neighborhood  will  prevent  deception. 

The  outcrop  of  strata  is  their  appearance  at  the 
surface  of  the  earth. 

Strata  are  conformable  when  the  planes  of  stratifi- 
cation are  parallel,  no  matter  how  much  inclined  or 
bent.  Thus  the  .strata  represented  by  Figs.  48,  49, 
and  51  are  conformable.  Unconformable  strata  are 
those  whose  planes  of  stratification  do  not  conform 


STKATIFIED   KOCKS. 


87 


to  the  planes  of  those  strata  upon  which  they  rest. 
In  Fig.  52,  the  horizontal  strata  are  unconformable  to 
the  inclined  strata  upon  which  they  rest. 

Fig.  52. 


Showing  Unconformable  Strata. 


Faults^  are  produced  by  the  breaking  of  the  beds 
across  their  planes  of  stratification,  and  thus  permit- 
ting the  strata  to  slide  up  or  down,  so  that  the  two 
parts  of  a  given  bed  are  no  longer  on  the  same  level. 

Fig.  53. 


Showing  a  Fault. 

Faults  seriously  retard  mining  operations ;  for 
suddenly  the  end  of  the  bed  of  coal,  or  other  sub- 
stance, is  reached,  and  the  workmen  know  not  whether 
its  counterpart  is  above  or  below  the  level  upon  which 
they  have  been  operating. 

Strata  which  are  really  lowest  or  oldest  may  appear 


88  STKATIFIED    BOCKS. 

highest.  In  ascending  a  mountain,  we  may  con- 
stantly be  reaching  lower  and  lower  strata.  By 
examining  the  stratified  rocks  represented  in  Fig.  39, 
it  will  be  seen  that  all  the  inclined  beds  were  formed 
and  elevated  before  the  horizontal  ones  could  accumu- 
late upon  them.  It  will  also  be  seen  that  the  lowest 
of  the  inclined  beds  do  not  make  their  appearance  at 
the  surface  till  near  the  summit  of  the  mountain. 

The  same  strata  may  be  observed  in  many  places, 
and  be  mistaken  for  others.  Such  a  mistake  is  the 
more  likely  to  be  made,  because  the  same  beds  often 
dip  in  opposite  directions  in  the  different  places  where 
observations  are  made.  Fig.  54  illustrates  a  case  of 
this  kind. 

Fig.  54. 


Showing  the  same  beds  dipping  in  opposite  directions. 

Vertical  and  highly  inclined  strata  are  often,  and 
perhaps  always,  parts  of  vast  folds,  whose  upper  por- 
tions have  been  removed.  Thus  the  strata  whose  up- 
turned edges  are  exhibited  in  Fig.  55,  were  once 
extended,  as  indicated  by  the  dotted  lines. 

Strata  are  sometimes  folded  so  as  to  bring  the  upper 
or  newer  beneath  the  lower  or  older,  as  illustrated  in 


STBATIFIED   ROCKS. 
Fig.  55. 


89 


Showing  that  vertical  and  highly  inclined  strata  are  parts  of  great  folds. 

Fig  56,  where  the  corresponding  parts  of  a  given  bed 
are  designated  by  the  same  letter. 

Fig.  56. 


Strata  folded  so  as  to  bring  the  newest  beneath  the  oldest. 


The  various  positions  of  the  stratified  rocks  have 
resulted  mainly,  if  not  wholly,  from  the  vertical  move- 
ments which  the  crust  of  the  earth  has  undergone  from 
time  to  time.  The  great  cause  of  all  these  movements 
is  the  molten  condition  of  the  interior  of  the  globe. 
In  some  cases  the  strata  have  been  uplifted  by  the 
force  of  the  internal  fires ;  but  it  is  probable  that  the 
cooling  of  the  heated  nucleus,  and  the  consequent 

contractions,  have  in  a  great  measure  produced  the 
8* 


90  STKATIFIED  EOCKS. 

vast  folds  of  strata  which  form  the  hills  and  moun- 
tains. 

The  disturbances  of  the  strata  pointed  out  in  the 
previous  pages,  show  how  we  are  able  to  know  the 
condition  of  the  rocks  to  a  great  depth ;  for  we  be- 
come as  well  acquainted  with  a  series  of  strata  by 
examining  their  upturned  edges,  as  we  should  by 
penetrating  them,  were  they  in  a  horizontal  position. 

We  are  permitted  to  examine  strata  in  every 
country,  which,  had  they  remained  as  originally  de- 
posited, would  be  miles  beneath  the  surface.  Thus 
the  crust  of  the  earth  is  laid  op  on  to  actual  observa- 
tion to  the  depth  of  many  miles. 

As  remarked  on  a  previous  page  in  regard  to 
minerals,  the  student  of  Geology  should  early  collect 
specimens  of  all  the  most  common  rocks,  and,  as  far 
as  possible,  observe  the  various  positions  in  which 
they  occur. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

GENERAL  VIEW  OF  THE  VEGETABLE  AND  THE  ANIMAL 
KINGDOM,  PREPARATORY  TO  THE  STUDY  OF  THE  RE- 
MAINS OF  PLANTS  AND  ANIMALS  IN  THE  ROCKS. 


SECTION  I. 
THE   VEGETABLE    KINGDOM. 

THE  Vegetable  Kingdom  comprises  two  great 
Brandies, — Phsenogamous  or  Flowering  Plants,  and 
CryptogamoTis  or  Flowerless  Plants. 

PELENOGAMOUS  PLANTS  bear  true  flowers, 
and  produce  seeds  having  a  seed-leaf  or  seed-leaves, 
called  cotyledon  or  cotyledons,  in  which  is  enveloped 
a  ready-formed  embryo,  the  germ  of  a  new  plant. 
This  branch  embraces  all  the  higher  forms  of  vegeta- 
tion, and  naturally  divides  into  two  Classes, — Exo- 
gens  and  Endogens. 

EXOGENS,  or  Outside  Growers,  comprise  all  plants 
whose  stems  are  composed  of  three  distinct  parts, — 
pith  in  the  centre,  bark  outside,  and  wood,  or  woody 

(91) 


92 


THE   VEGETABLE   KINGDO^. 


substance  between  the  two.  Although  these  parts 
are  the  most  plainly  exhibited  in  trees  and  shrubs, 
they  are  more  or  less  distinctly  indicated  in  many  of 
the  herbs,  or  soft- stemmed  plants. 

Plants  of  this  class  have  net-veined  leaves,  and  bear 
seeds  with  two  or  more  seed-leaves,  and  are  often 
called  Dicotyledons.  The  two  parts  into  which  a  bean, 
a  pumpkin  seed,  or  an  apple  seed  readily  divides,  are 
the  cotyledons,  and  they  form  the  first  two  leaves  of 
the  young  plant. 

Exogens  all  grow  by  additions  to  the  outside, — a 
new  layer  being  added  just  beneath  the  bark  each 
year ;  and  thus  the  age  of  the  shrub  or  tree  is  indi- 
cated by  the  number  of  concentric  rings  exhibited  by 
a  cross  section  of  its  stem  or  trunk. 


Fig.  57. 


Fig.  58. 


Exogenous  Leaf. 


Cross  section  of  an  Exogenous  Stem. 


As  stems  with  concentric  layers,  leaves  with  net- 
like  veins,  and  seeds  with  two  or  more  cotyledons, 


THE   VEGETABLE   KINGDOM. 


93 


belong  exclusively  to  Exogens,  it  is  plain  that  a  stem, 
or  a  leaf,  or  a  seed,  shows  at  once  whether  it  repre- 
sents a  plant  of  this  class. 

Exogens  naturally  divide  into  two  sub-classes — 
Angiosperms  and  Gymnosperms. 

Angiosperms  comprise  all  the  Exogens  which  bear 
their  seeds  in  an  ovary  or  seed-vessel.  This  is  the 

Fig.  59. 


Cycas. 


94 


THE   VEGETABLE   KINGDOM. 


case  with  the  great  body  of  exogenous  plants, — with 
all  except  those  enumerated  in  the  following  sub- 
class : — 

Gymnosperms  comprise  those  which  bear  their  seeds 
attached  to  the  inner  surface  of  a  scale.  Such  are  the 
cone-bearing  trees,  as  Pines,  Spruces,  Hemlocks,  Ce- 
dars, Balsams,  Larches,  Yews,  &c.,  and  a  family  of 
tropical  plants  known  under  the  name  of  Cycas,  one 
species  of  which  is  represented  by  Fig.  59. 

ENDOGENS   embrace   all   flowering    plants  whose 


Fig.  60. 


Fig.  61. 


Endogenous  Leaf.  Sections  of  Endogenous  Stems. 


THE   VEGETABLE   KINGDOM.  95 

stems  are  not  composed  of  concentric  layers,  "but 
whose  woody  substance  is  distributed  through  the 
stems  in  threads  and  bundles.  Plants  of  this  class 
have  parallel- veined  leaves,  which  sheathe  the  stem, 
and  decay  without  falling  off.  They  bear  seeds  with 
only  one  seed-leaf  or  cotyledon.  Such  are  the  Grasses 
and  Grains,  the  Field  Lilies,  Solomon's  Seal,  Lily  of 
the  Valley,  &c. ;  also  the  Palm,  Sugar-Cane,  Bamboo, 
and  the  like.  Figs.  60  and  61  represent  a  leaf 
of  the  large  Solomon's  Seal,  a  cross  and  vertical 
section  of  a  corn-stalk,  and  a  cross  section  of  the 
Palm  stem. 

CKYPTOGAMOUS  PLANTS  do  not  bear  real 
flowers,  nor  produce  seeds  with  a  cotyledon,  or  cotyle- 
dons ;  but  they  bear  something  analogous  to  flowers, 
and  produce  spores  instead  of  seeds.  This  branch  com- 
prises all  the  lowest  forms  of  vegetation  on  the  globe. 

Cryptogamous  Plants  naturally  divide  into  three 
Classes  —  Acrogens,  Anophytes,  and  Thallophytes, 
ranking  in  the  order  in  which  they  are  named,  the 
first  being  highest. 

ACROGENS  comprise  those  plants  whose  growth  is 
wholly  or  mainly  at  their  summit.  This  class  em- 
braces Ferns,  Club-Mosses,  and  Equisetaceae,  or  Horse- 
tails. 

Ferns  are  familiar  to  every  one  under  the  popular 
name  of  Brakes.  There  are  about  50  species  in  the 
Northern  States.  A  very  common  form  is  repre- 


96 


THE   VEGETABLE   KINGDOM. 


sented  by  Fig  62.   In  most  cases  the  spores  are  "borne 

in    little    capsules    on    the 
Fig.  62.  back  of  the  leaf,  giving  it 

a  very  beautiful  appearance. 
In  the  tropics,  some  spe- 
cies of  ferns  grow  to  the 
proportions  of  trees,  as  in 
Fig.  63.  In  some  instances 
they  are  30  or  40  feet,  or 
more,  in  height. 

Club-Mosses  are  familiar 
to  every  one,  as  the  leafy, 
evergreen,  trailing  plants, 
common  in  pastures  and 
woodlands,  and  often  gath- 
ered for  festoons  to  adorn 
our  houses,  school-rooms, 
and  churches.  Some  spe- 
cies send  up  little  branches 
from  the  creeping  stem, 
which  expand  into  minia- 
ture trees.  One  species 
appears  precisely  like  a 
little  tree,  and  hence  is 
called  the  Tree  Club-Moss. 

Equisetacese,  or  Horsetails, 
are  familiar  as  they  appear 
.  in    those     brown,    leafless, 

striated,  jointed  stems,  6  or  8  inches  long,  which  are 


Poly  podium. 


Fig.  64. 


THE   VEGETABLE    KINGDOM. 
Fig.  63. 


97 


Tree  Ferns. 

found  everywhere  in 
early  Spring;  and  in 
those  similar  stems,  2 
or  3  feet  high,  which 
grow  near  streams,  and 
contain  so  much  silica, 
that  they  are  used  for 
scouring,  and  hence 
called  Scouring  Kush- 
es.  Fig.  64  gives  a 
good  idea  of  the  plants 
of  this  group. 
ANOPHYTES  comprise 
all  the  true  mosses. 

G 


Fig.  65. 


Polytrichiura. 


98          THE  VEGETABLE  KINGDOM. 

Mosses  are  small  plants  with  leafy  stems,  and  simple 
narrow  leaves.  Fig.  65  shows  one  of  the  most  com- 
mon forms.  The  soft  mosses  which  are  so  common 
in  wet  meadows,  are  known  under  the  name  of 
Sphagnum. 

THALLOPHYTES  comprise  the  Algae, — such  as  sea- 
weeds and  the  like, — Lichens,  and  Fungi.  The  Algse 
exhibit  a  great  variety  of  interesting  forms  and  'colors  ; 
and  are  very  beautiful.  Lichens  occur  in  the  form  of 
incrustations  and  foliaceous  expansions  on  rocks, 
trees,  and  fences,  and,  in  many  places,  they  cover  the 
trees,  in  long,  hanging  masses,  composed  of  innumer- 
able threads.  This  last  form  of  the  lichen  is  most 
commonly  found  on  trees  growing  in  low  lands. 

Fungi  are  the  toadstools,  and  the  like.  The 
leathery  forms  of  vegetation  which  grow  upon  dead 
trees,  and  upon  old  logs,  belong  to  this  group. 

The  classification  of  plants  may  be  presented  in 
one  view  as  seen  below. 


PH^ENOGAMOUS, 


OB 


FLOWERING  PLANTS. 


EXOGENS,       f  Angiosperms. 

or 
DICOTYLEDONS.  [  Gymnosperms. 


ENDOGENS, 

or 
MONOCOTYLEDONS. 


CRYPTOGAMOUS,        f  ACKOGFNS. 

OB  •(  ANOPHYTES. 

FLOWERLESS  PLANTS.     THALLOPHYTES. 


THE   VEGETABLE   KINGDOM. 


A  FEW  WORDS  ABOUT  THE   DISTRIBUTION   OF  PLANTS. 

The  distribution  of  plants  is  in  accordance  with 
climate ;  each  climatic  zone  being  characterized  by  a 
peculiar  flora.  But  while  each  climate  has  a  flora, 
which,  for  the  most  part,  presents  the  same  general 
characteristics  in  different  countries,  it  is  also  true, 
that,  excepting  the  frozen  regions,  the  species  of 
plants  differ  widely  in  different  countries,  even  in  the 
same  climatic  zone. 

It  is  in  the  Torrid  Zone  that  vegetation  reaches  its 
highest  expression,  both  in  number  of  species,  and  in 
luxuriance  of  growth. 

From  the  tropics  to  the  poles,  vegetation  gradually 
diminishes,  both  in  species  and  in  luxuriance ;  and  in 
the  frozen  regions,  the  whole  flora  is  composed  of 
'dwarfed  shrubs,  mosses,  and  lichens. 

Yegetation  changes  with  the  increase  of  altitude, 
in  the  same  manner  as  with  the  increase  of  latitude. 
The  highest  mountains  in  the  tropics  exhibit  the 
zones  of  vegetation  in  the  same  order  as  they  occur 
in  passing  from  the  equator  to  the  polar  regions.  At 
the  base  of  the  mountains  we  find  tropical  luxuri- 
ance, but  soon  the  Palm,  the  Bamboo,  and  Tree  Fern, 
give  way  to  the  Oak  and  the  Chestnut,  and  these  in 
turn  to  the  Pine  and  other  Conifers ;  and  then  comes 
the  region  of  dwarf  Birches,  and  Alpine  Shrubs,  and 


100  THE   VEGETABLE    KINGDOM. 

higher  still,  are  only  the  Mosses  and  Lichens  of  the 
Arctic  regions. 

In  the  Arctic  Zone  the  same  species  of  plants  are 
found  in  North  America,  Greenland,  Europe,  and 
Asia ;  but,  passing  from  this  zone  towards  the  south, 
we  find  the  plants  of  the  two  hemispheres  more  and 
more  unlike,  even  in  similar  climates,  till  there  is 
the  greatest  diversity  between  the  floras  of  South 
America,  Africa,  and  Australia. 

The  resemblance  between  the  flora  of  Europe  and 
that  of  North  America,  leads  the  superficial  observer 
to  suppose  them  identical,  which  is  not  the  case. 
We  have  but  few  plants  identical  with  those  of 
Europe. 

In  North  America,  there  are  at  least  150  species 
of  Forest  Trees,  while  in  Europe  there  are  less  than 
40  species.  Moreover,  the  Pines,  Elms,  Oaks,  Chest- 
nuts, and  Lindens  of  Europe,  are  specifically  differ- 
ent from  the  trees  bearing  the  same  names  in  North 
America. 

There  are  probably  150,000  species  of  plants  now 
upon  the  earth.  It  is  worthy  of  note,  that  no  country, 
however  diversified,  nor  hemisphere  even,  can  furnish 
them  all.  Nothing  short  of  the  whole  earth  can 
present  us  all  the  species  of  the  Vegetable  Kingdom. 
This  great  number  of  species  is  distributed  among 
many  botanical  provinces,  each  of  which  has  a  flora 
found  nowhere  else. 


THE   VEGETABLE   J3H1GHK&*  101 

Plants  are  distributed  through,  the  agency  of  man 
and  animals,  especially  of  birds ;  and  through  the 
agency  of  winds,  rivers,  waves,  and  currents.  By 
these  means  the  species  of  the  different  regions,  to  a 

x 

limited  extent,  have  been  interchanged.  But  the 
distribution  of  the  plants  into  great  botanical  pro- 
vinces, resulted  from  no  such  accidental  causes ;  nor 
is  this  distribution  the  result  of  the  influence  of 
climate,  though  in  accordance  with  it. 

The  above  and  similar  facts  show  that  the  vegeta- 
tion of  the  globe  has  not  been  distributed  from  any 
one  country.  On  the  contrary,  the  species,  for  the 
most  part,  have  originated  near  those  great  centres 
around  which  we  now  find  them  clustered.  As  fast 
as  the  lands  rose  from  the  water,  they  were  clothed 
with  such  vegetation  as  they  were  adapted  to  support ; 
but  all  done  according  to  a  Great  Plan  made  by 
"Him  who  ruleth  over  all." 

9* 


«•"'*  **^  ff  **"*  •*    *  \ 

THE*  ANIMA*!/  KINGDOM. 


SECTION   II. 


THE   ANIMAL   KINGDOM. 


There  are  not  less  than  250,000  species  of  animals 
living  on  the  earth.  To  study  these  in  all  their 
various  forms  and  relations,  is  the  delightful  task  of 
the  zoologist.  But  it  is  absolutely  necessary  that  the 
student  who  would  investigate  the  history  of  our 
globe,  should  become  acquainted  with  the  leading 
facts  of  the  Animal  Kingdom  ;  for  it  is  only  by  know- 
ing something  of  animal  life,  as  it  now  appears  on 
the  earth,  that  he  can  have  any  true  understanding 
of  the  remains  of  animals  found  in  the  rocks. 

Our  brief  limits  allow  only  the  most  general  state- 
ment of  results  which  have  been  reached,  after  long 
years  of  toil,  by  such  men  as  Cuvier,  Agassiz,  and 
other  great  and  noble  minds.  I  would  invite  the 
attention  of  the  student  to  their  works,  and  would 
especially  urge  the  study  of  animals,  so  far  as  circum-, 
stances  will  permit. 

The  natural  divisions  of  the  Animal  Kingdom,  are 
Branches,  or  Types,  Classes,  Orders,  Families,  Genera, 
and  Species.  That  is,  the  animal  kingdom  is  divided 
into  branches  ;  each  branch  into  classes  ;  each  class 
into  orders  ;  each  order  into  families  ;  each  family  into 


THE   ANIMAL   KINGDOM.  103 

genera;  and  each  genus  into  species  composed  of 
individuals  which  are  essentially  alike. 

Agassiz  has  shown  that  these  divisions  are  not  the 
invention  of  man  for  his  own  convenience,  but  that 
they  exist  in  nature.  He  has  also  shown  that 

"  Branches,  or  Types,  are  characterized  by  the  pldii 
of  structure. 

Classes,  by  the  manner  in  which  that  plan  is  exe- 
cuted, as  far  as  ways  and  means  are  concerned. 

Orders,  by  the  degrees  of  complication  of  that 
structure. 

Families,  by  form. 

Genera,  by  the  details  of  execution  in  special  parts. 

Species,  by  the  relations  of  individuals  to  one  an- 
other, and  to  the  world  in  which  they  live,  as  well  as 
by  the  proportion  of  their  parts,  their  ornamenta- 
tion, &c." 

The  Animal  Kingdom  consists  of  four  great 
branches,  or  types — Kadiates,  Molluscs,  Articulates, 
and  Vertebrates.  All  the  animals  in  any  one  of 
these  branches  are  built  upon  the  same  plan,  or,  in 
other  words,  after  the  same  type. 

EADIATES  comprise  all  animals  whose  organs 
radiate  from  a  common  point  or  centre.  There  are 
probably  10,000  living  species.  This  branch  contains 
three  Classes — Polyps,  Acalephs,  and  Echinoderms. 

POLYPS  comprise  animals  with  a  fleshy,  tubular,  or 
sack-like  body,  having  a  circular  summit  or  disk,  in 


104  THE   ANIMAL   KINGDOM. 

tlie  centre  of  which  is  the  mouth,  surrounded  by  one 
or  more  rows  of  tentacles.  They  are  all  marine,  and 
are  attached,  by  their  lower  extremity,  to  submarine 
bodies,  and  to  the  sea  bottom.  They  abound  on  the 
coasts  in  shallow  water,  and,  with  few  exceptions,  do 
not  live  deeper  than  20  or  30  fathoms.  Within  these 
limits  different  species  flourish  at  different  depths. 

From  their  resemblance  to  plants,  they  are  often 
called  Zoophytes.  They  vary  in  size,  from  a  micro- 
scopic point  to  eighteen  inches  in  diameter.  They 
increase  by  eggs,  by  budding  similarly  to  plants,  and 
by  divisions  and  subdivisions.  The  polyps  known  as 
Sea- Anemone,  or  Actinia,  so  common  on  our  own 
coast,  give  the  student  a  perfect  idea  of  the  animals 
of  this  class. 

Polyps  are  both  solitary  and  associated,  frequently 
in  the  most  astonishing  numbers.  The  largest  com- 
munity, however,  is  only  the  increase  of  a  single 
individual. 

Some  polyps  secrete  calcareous  matter.  In  this 
respect,  there  is  a  gradual  passage  from  the  actinias, 
all  of  which  are  fleshy,  to  those  polyps  which  secrete 
a  solid  framework,  or  Coral.  Yet  there  is  no  essential 
difference  in  external  appearance,  or  structure,  be- 
tween the  actinias  and  the  coral-producing  polyps, 
excepting  only  the  fact  that  the  former  are  generally 
larger  than  the  latter. 

The   too   common    impression   that   polyps   build 


THE    ANIMAL    KINGDOM. 

Fig.  GO. 


105 


c 


Expanded. 


Fig.  67. 


Fig.  68. 


"X, 


The  same  closed.  The  same  opening. 

Sea- Anemone,  or  Actinia,  Coast  of  Massachusetts. 

coral  at  will,  as  the  bee  builds  comb,  or  as  workmen 
masonry,  is  entirely  erroneous.  Coral  is  simply  the 
skeleton  or  aggregate  skeletons  of  polyps,  and  is  a 
necessary  result  of  their  existence.  In  fact,  the 


106 


THE   ANIMAL   KINGDOM. 


polyps  form  coral  in  the  same  manner  as  the  higher 
animals  form  bones. 

Every  part  of  live  coral  is  wholly  enveloped  by  the 
polyps  that  produced  it,  and  in  no  sense  are  the 
polyps  within  the  coral,  though  when  disturbed  they 
contract,  and  thus  give  the  appearance  of  retreating 
within  it. 

Coral  animals  are  not  always  minute,  but  on  the 
contrary  often  a  quarter  or  half  an  inch,  and  some- 
times several  inches,  in  diameter. 

Each  of  the  cells  on  a  piece  of  coral  shows  the 
position  occupied  by  the  coral  animal ;  and  hence  by 
counting  the  cells,  we  learn  the  number  of  polyps 
engaged  in  secreting  a  particular  mass.  The  size  of 
the  depression  also  shows  the  size  of  the  animal. 


Fig.  69. 


Coral. 


THE   ANIMAL   KINGDOM.  107 

Fig.  69  represents  one  of  the  common  forms  of 
coral,  called  Madrepore.  The  branch  on  the  right  is 
represented  as  alive,  the  other  as  dead. 

The  forms  and  hues  of  live  coral  are  almost  end- 
less. Some  parts  of  the  tropical  seas,  where  polyps 
especially  flourish,  rival  in  graceful  and  varied  forms, 
and  in  splendor  of  colors,  the  most  beautiful  flower- 
gardens  of  the  lands.  There  is  scarcely  a  form  of 
vegetation,  either  trunk  or  branch,  leaf  or  flower, 
fern,  moss,  lichen  or  fungus,  that  is  not  imitated  to 
the  life  by  these  wonderful  animals  of  the  sea,  whose 
united  skeletons  at  length  form  islands  which  in  due 
time  become  the  home  of  man. 

Polyps  may  be  divided  into  two  Orders  — Actinoids, 
embracing  all  the  Actinias,  and  allied  coral  polyps ; 
and  Alcyonoids,  embracing  polyps  having  only  eight 
tentacles 

For  a  perfect  exposition  of  the  whole  subject  of 
Polyps,  the  student  is  referred  to  Professor  J.  D. 
Dana's  splendid  work  on  Zoophytes. 

Sponges,  formerly  regarded  as  Zoophytes,  are  now 
by  many  eminent  naturalists,  considered  as  belonging 
to  the  vegetable  kingdom. 

ACALEPHS,  so  called  on  account  of  their  irritating 
properties,  embrace  all  the  Jelly-fishes,  or  Medusae, 
and  their  allies. 

Scientifically  considered,  Acalephs  comprise  three 
Orders — Hydroids,  formerly  regarded  as  polyps,  Dis- 
cophorse,  and  Ctenophorse. 


108 


THE   ANIMAL   KINGDOM. 


Hydroids  comprise  little  plant-like  marine  animals, 
and  the  so  called  fresh-water  polyps.  Fig.  70  repre- 
sents the  Hydra,  the  well  known  fresh-water  polyp, 
found  in  brooks  and  ponds.  It  is  attached  at  base, 
and  its  long  tentacles  are  spread  to  entrap  some  little 
animal  for  food.  Fig.  71  shows  a  marine  hydroid 
magnified,  called  Coryne. 


Fig.  70. 


Fig.  71. 


Hydra. 


Coryne. 


Discophorse  comprise  the  disc,  and  bell-shaped  Me- 
dusae. In  fact,  marine  Hydroids  and  the  Discophorae 
are  the  same  in  different  stages  of  development ;  or, 
in  other  words,  the  Medusas  of  this  order  are  born 
of  marine  hydroids;  and  hence,  Agassiz,  I  believe, 
groups  them  both  under  the  term  Hydro-Medusas. 
Fig.  71,  copied  by  permission  from  the  splendid 


THE   ANIMAL   KINGDOM. 


109 


plates  for  the  forthcoming  volume  on  this  subject,  by 
Agassiz,  shows  the  buds  a,  b,  of  the  hydroid  just 
swelling  into  free  jelly-fishes,  like  that  represented  by 
Fig.  72.  Another,  in  a  less  advanced  stage,  is  seen 
at  c.  The  hydro-medusae  are  at  present  attracting 
much  attention  from  the  ablest  naturalists. 


'  Fig.  72. 


Fig.  73. 


Sarsia. 


Pleurobrachia. 


In  one  of  his  papers,  Agassiz  has  remarked  as  fol- 
io 


110  THE   ANIMAL    KINGDOM. 

lows,  about  these  curious  animals  of  the  sea: — "It  is 
in  reality  one  of  the  most  wonderful  sights  which  the 
philosophic  naturalist  can  behold,  to  see  animals 
scarcely  more  dense  than  the  water  in  which  they 
play,  and  almost  as  limpid,  perform,  in  that  medium, 
movements  as  varied  as  those  of  the  eagle  which 
soars  in  the  air,  or  the  butterfly  dancing  from  flower 
to  flower,  testifying,  by  their  activity,  their  sensitive- 
ness and  their  volition." 

The  Jelly-fishes  here  alluded  to  are  small.  Some 
other  species  grow  to  a  great  size,  weighing,  some- 
times, 30  or  40  pounds ;  and  these,  too,  are  born  of 
hydroids  of  different  kinds.  One  of  the  most  com- 
mon species  is  the  umbrella- shaped  one,  seen  every- 
where along  our  coast,  popularly  known  as  the  Sun- 
fish. 

Ctenophorse  are  better  represented  by  Fig.  73,  than 
by  any  description  that  I  can  give. 

ECHINODERMS  comprise  marine  animals  which 
mostly  have  a  calcareous  covering  bearing  spines, 
though  one  order  is  made  up  of  animals  which  have 
a  thick  tough  skin. 

This  class  embraces  four  Orders, — Crinoids,  Aste- 
roids, Echinoids,  and  Holothurioids. 

Crinoids  are  lily-shaped  animals,  which  are  attached 
by  a  sort  of  stem  to  the  sea  bottom.  They  resemble 
some  forms  of  vegetation,  but  are,  nevertheless,  real 
animals,  and  are  closely  related  to  the  Asteroids 


THE   ANIMAL   KINGDOM.  Ill 

spoken  of  on  the  next  page.  In  fact,  they  appear  like 
a  sort  of  Star-fish  with  a  stem ;  yet  it  must  be  borne 
in  mind  that  there  is  no  such  relationship  as  parent 
and  offspring  between  crinoids  and  star-fishes.  There 
is  only  one  species  of  pedunculated  crinoid  now 

Fig.  74. 


Pentacrinus  Caput-Medusae,  West  Indies. 


living,  the  Pentacrinus  Caput-Medusse  of  the  West 
Indies,  represented  by  Fig.  74.  We  shall  find  that 
they  are  very  abundant  in  the  rocks. 

Asteroids  comprise  the  Star-fishes,  which  are  com- 


112 


THE   ANIMAL   KINGDOM. 


mon  everywhere  on  our  rocky  coasts.  They  are 
readily  found  at  low  tide,  by  turning  up  the  sea-weed 
and  looking  in  the  clefts  of  the  rocks. 

Fig.  75. 


Star-fish,  Nahant,  Mass. 


Echinoids  include  Sea-urchins,  Spatangoids,  and  the 
like.  Figs.  76  and  77  give  the  student  a  good  idea  of 
the  animals  of  this  order.  Though  at  first  view,  Echi- 
noids appear  very  different  from  Star-fishes,  a  little 
patient  study  will  show  that  all  the  parts  of  the  one, 
correspond  to  those  of  the  other,— in  a  word,  that 


THE   ANIMAL   KINGDOM. 


113 


both  are  built  upon  the  same  plan.  It  will  afford  the 
student  one  of  the  most  pleasant  and  profitable  ex- 
ercises to  trace  out  the  homology  of  the  star-fish  and 
sea-urchins. 


Fig.  76. 


Fig.  77. 


Echinus.  ,  Same  seen  from  above,  with  spines  removed. 

Holothurioids  include  animals  with  an  elongated, 
worm-like  body,  and  a  leathery  skin.  Such  are  the 
Sea-Slugs. 

MOLLUSCS  are  built  upon  a  plan  entirely  different 
from  the  Kadiates.  They  are  all  soft-bodied  animals. 
The  shell  found  as  a  covering  in  many  species,  may  be 
compared  to  an  external  skeleton  They  are  terres- 
trial, fresh-water,  and  marine.  Number  of  living 
species  16,000.  This  branch  comprises  three  Classes 
— Acephals,  Gasteropods,  and  Cephalopods. 

ACEPHALS  embrace  four  Orders — Bryozoa,  Brachi- 
opods,  Tunicata,  and  Lamellibranchiates. 

Bryozoa,  also  called  Moss  Animalcules,  are  small 


10* 


H 


114 


THE   ANIMAL   KINGDOM. 


molluscs  growing  in  clusters,  forming  incrustations 
on  rocks,  and  other  submarine  bodies.  They  re- 
semble corals. 

Brachiopods  comprise  those  bivalve  molluscs  whose 
two  valves  are  never  equal,  but  are  always  equal- 
sided.  From  the  position  which  the  animal  occupies, 
the  two  valves  of  the  shell  are  called  respectively 
dorsal  and  ventral.  The  ventral  valve  is  largest,  and 
has  a  prominent  beak  through  which  the  organ  of 
adhesion  passes;  for  brachiopods  grow  attached  to 
submarine  bodies.  The  dorsal  valve  is  always  free 
and  imperforate. 


Fig.  78. 


Fig.  79.         Fig.  80. 


Ventral  view.  Side  view,  Dorsal  view. 

Terebratula,  a  Brachiopod,  Coast  of  Maine. 

Tunicata  are  those  molluscs  that  are  protected  by 
an  elastic  covering  or  tunic  instead  of  a  shell. 

Lamellibranchiates  are  those  molluscs  which  have 
their  gills  in  lamellas.  Such  are  the  oyster,  marine 
and  fresh- water  clams,  and  the  like. 

GASTEKOPODS  embrace  three  Orders — Pteropods, 
Heteropods,  and  Gasteropods  proper. 


THE   ANIMAL    KINGDOM.  115 

Pteropods  are  small  oceanic  snails  with  wing-like 
appendages.  They  are  the  food  of  the  right  whale. 

Heteropods  comprise  oceanic  snails  with  a  very 
tender  shell. 

Gasteropods  proper  are  such  as  effect  locomotion  on 
a  fleshy  foot.  Such  are  our  common  land-snails,  also 
the  Natica,  and  the  like  on  our  coasts. 

A  group  of  small  animals,  mostly  microscopic, 
called  Foraminifera,  is  placed  under  this  order  by 
some  modern  writers,  though  by  others  not  considered 
as  strictly  belonging  to  any  of  the  four  great  branches 
established  by  Cuvier.  These  animals  have  a  calcare- 
ous shell,  often  in  the  form  of  a  snail  shell,  with  many 
holes  through  which  they  extend  feelers,  with  which 
they  catch  their  prey.  "We  shall  learn  hereafter  that 
these  animals  are  abundant  in  the  rocks. 

CEPHALOPODS  comprise  marine  molluscs,  whose 
principal  appendages  are  attached  to  the  head.  Some 
of  them  have  fins,  and  all  can  propel  themselves  by 
the  forcible  expulsion  of  water  from  a  cavity,  or 
chamber,  with  which  they  are  provided.  This  class 
is  divided  into  two  Orders  —  Tetrabranchiates  and 
Dibranchiates. 

Tetrabranchiates  are  cephalopods  which  breathe  by 
four  gills.  They  have  an  external  shell,  divided  into 
partitions  or  chambers,  which  are  connected  by  a 
tube  or  siphuncle.  They  are  often  called  chambered- 
shelled  molluscs.  Although  more  than  1400  species 


116  THE   ANIMAL   KINGDOM. 

Fig.  81. 


Nautilus. 


have  been  found  in  the  rocks,  the  Nautilus  is  the  only 
living  representative.  Fig.  81  represents  the  Nauti- 
lus cut  open,  showing  the  animal  lying  in  the  shell ; 
also  the  position  of  the  chambers  and  siphuncle. 
The  chambers  are  formed  as  the  animal  grows,  and 
moves  forward,  leaving  one  partition  after  another. 

Dibranchiates  are  those  cephalopods  which  breathe 
by  two  gills.  The  common  Cuttle-fish  and  Squids  are 
familiar  examples.  "With  the  exception  of  a  single 
genus  they  are  naked — having  their  solid  portion,  a 
sort  of  rudimentary  shell,  inside.  They  have  eight  or 
ten  muscular  arms  and  powerful  jaws.  They  are  pro- 
vided with  a  sack  or  ink-bag,  from  which,  when  pur- 
sued, they  discharge  an  inky  fluid,  rendering  the 
water  turbid,  and  thereby  escape. 


THE   ANIMAL   KINGDOM.  117 

Fig.  82  gives  a  good  idea  of  the  animals  of  this 
order.  The  Argonauta,  or  Paper  Sailor,  is  a  repre- 
sentative of  the  only  genus  which  has  an  external  shell. 

Fig.  82. 


Loligo,  or  Squid,  Coast  of  United  States. 

ARTICULATES  comprise  those  animals  which 
have  the  body  more  or  less  divided  into  lobes,  rings, 
or  joints,  often  movable  upon  one  another.  Their 
hard  skin  forms  a  sort  of  external  skeleton,  the 
muscles  being  attached  to  the  inside.  Estimated 
number  of  living  species  200,000.  This  branch  may 
be  divided  into  three  natural  Classes — Worms,  Crus- 
taceans, and  Insects. 

WORMS  comprehend  Helminths,  or  Intestinal 
Worms,  Earthworms,  Leeches,  &c. 

CRUSTACEANS  are  divided  into  four  Orders — Roti- 
fera,  Entomostraca,  Tetradecapods,  and  Decapods. 

Rotifera  are  all  microscopic  animals. 

Entomostraca  include  the  Limulus,  or  Horse-shoe 
Crab,  and  the  Cirripeds,  that  is  the  Barnacles. 
Besides  the  barnacles,  represented  by  Fig.  84,  there 
are  a  great  many  species  with  a  sub-conical  shell, 


118 


THE  ANIMAL   KINGDOM. 


which  everywhere  cover  the   rocks    that    are   daily 
washed  by  the  tide. 

Fig.  83.  Fig.  84. 


Limulus,  or  Horse-shoe  Crab. 


Barnacles. 


Tetradecapods  are  the  Sand-fleas  and  the  like. 
Decapods  comprise  Lobsters,  Crabs,  Shrimps,  and 
their  allies. 

Fig.  85. 


Common  Shrimp. 


THE   ANIMAL   KINGDOM.  .  119 

INSECTS  contain  three  Orders,  according  to  Agassiz 
— Myriopods,  Arachnids,  and  Insects  proper. 

Myriopods  comprise  the  Millipedes  and  Centipedes. 

Arachnids  comprise  the  Spiders  and  Scorpions. 

Insects  proper  comprise  Beetles,  Bugs,  Grasshoppers, 
Darning-needles,  Bees  and  "Wasps,  Aphides  or  Plant- 
lice,  Harvest-fly,  Butterflies,  House-flies,  and  Musqui- 
toes,  represented  by  thousands  of  species.  This  order 
contains  more  species  than  any  other  in  the  animal 
kingdom. 

VERTEBRATES  embrace  all  animals  which  have 
two  cavities,  more  or  less  elongated,  one  above,  and 
the  other  below  a  bony  or  cartilaginous  axis  called 
the  back  bone.  The  upper  cavity  contains  the  spinal 
cord,  which,  at  one  extremity,  is  enlarged  into  a  lobe, 
or  lobes  called  the  brain.  The  lower  cavity  contains 
the  organs  of  respiration,  digestion,  and  reproduction. 

In  all  vertebrates  the  skeleton  is  internal,  and  con- 
stitutes the  frame  upon  which  the  muscles  are  placed; 
the  skin,  with  its  appendages,  surrounding  the  whole. 
In  most  of  the  vertebrates,  the  axis  of  the  skeleton  is 
made  up  of  parts,  called  vertebras ;  which  are  more 
or  less  movable  one  upon  another. 

This  branch  contains  five  natural  Classes, — Fishes, 
Batrachians,  Reptiles,  Birds,  and  Mammals. 

That  the  animals  in  all  these  classes  are  built  upon 
the  same  plan,  may  be  seen  by  a  little  careful  study. 
They  all  exhibit  the  two  cavities,  before  mentioned, 


120 


THE   ANIMAL   KINGDOM. 


one  above  and  the  other  below  the  main  axis  of  the 
body.  They  all  have  an  internal  skeleton.  The 
unity  of  the  plan  upon  which  all  vertebrates  are  built, 


Fig.  80. 


Fig.  89. 


Arm  of  a  Man. 


Leg-  of  a  Deer.        Leg  of  a  Lion.  Paddle  of  a  Whale. 


Fig.  90.  Fig.  91.  .  Fig.  92.  Fig   93. 


Wing  of  a  Bat.  Wing  of  a  Bird.          Leg  of  a  Turtle.         Fin  of  a  Fish. 


THE   ANIMAL    KINGDOM. 


121 


is  strikingly  brought  out  by  a  comparison  of  their 
skeletons,  or  even  of  their  anterior  members  of  loco- 
motion. The  foregoing  representations  of  the  forward 
locomotive  members  of  vertebrates,  in  which  corre- 
sponding parts  are  designated  by  the  same  letter, 
show  that  they  are  all  one  and  the  same  thing, 
expressed  in  different  ways. 

FISHES  may  be  divided  into  four  Orders,  if  we 
adopt  the  earlier  writings  of  Agassiz  —  Placoids, 
Ganoids,  Ctenoids,  and  Cycloids ;  this  classification 
being  based  upon  the  shape  of  the  scale,  which  is 
entirely  different  in  the  different  orders.  The  accom- 
panying figures  give  a  general  idea  of  the  shape  of 
the  scales  in  each  order.  The  number  of  species  of 
living  fishes  amounts  to  about  10,000. 


Fig.  04. 


Placoid  Settle.  Ganoid  Scale.  Ctenoid  Scale.  Cycloid  Scale. 

Form  of  the  Scales  in  the  different  Orders  of  Fishes. 


Placoids  comprise  fishes  with  flat  scales  and  a  carti- 
laginous skeleton.  Such  are  the  Sharks,  and  the 
Scates.  The  scales  of  the  latter  are  armed  with  a 

sharp  curved  spine. 

11  •  • 


122  THE    ANIMAL    KINGDOM. 

Ganoids  comprise  fishes  which,  have  enamelled 
scales.  Such  are  the  Gar-pike,  and  Sturgeon. 

Placoids  and  Ganoids  are  characterized  by  unequal 
lobed  or  heterocercal  tails,  the  spinal  column  being 
prolonged  into  the  upper  lobe.  These  are  the  two 
lowest  orders  of  fishes.  The  two  following  orders 
have  a  single  tail  fin,  or  the  tail  is  equally  bilobate 
or  homocercal. 


Fig.  98.  Fig.  99. 


Heterocercal  Tail.  Ilomocercal  Tail. 

Otenoids  embrace  all  fishes  which  have  scales  toothed 
on  the  edge.  Such  are  the  Perch,  Bream,  Bass, 
Flounder,  &c. 

Cycloids  are  those  fishes  whose  scales  are  rounded 
and  entire.  Such  are  the  Salmon,  Cod,  Mackerel, 
Pickerel,  Sucker,  Trout,  &c. 

The  last  two  orders  comprise  all  those  fishes  which 
are  the  most  useful  for  the  food  of  man. 

BATKACHIANS  embrace  three  Orders — Frogs,  Sala- 
manders, and  Caecilians,  or  Snake-like  Batrachians. 

REPTILES  comprise  four  Orders — Rhizodonts,  Sau- 
rians,  Chelonians,  and  Ophidians.  The  animals  of  this 
class,  as  well  as  those  of  the  two  preceding  ones,  are 


THE    ANIMAL    KINGDOM.  123 

cold-blooded,  or  rather  the  temperature  of  their  blood 
changes  with  that  of  the  medium  in  which  they  live. 
Keptiles  and  Batrachians  are  represented  by  about 
2000  living  species. 

Ehizodonts  are  large  reptiles  with  hollow  teeth. 
This  order  has  but  few  living  representatives. 

Saurians  embrace  the  Crocodile,  Alligator,  Lizards, 
and  Glass-snakes. 

Chelonians  embrace  all  Turtles  or  Tortoises,  whether 
land,  fresh-water,  or  marine. 

Ophidians  comprehend  all  the  snake  families. 

BIRDS  may  be  divided  into  seven  Orders — Nata- 
tores,  Grallse,  Cursores,  Easores,  Scansores,  Insessores, 
Kaptores.  The  first  two  orders  embrace  all  the 
aquatic  birds.  Birds  have  warm  blood.  Between 
6000  and  7000  species  are  known. 

Natatores,  or  Swimming  Birds,  are  those  which 
have  rather  short  legs,  webbed  feet,  and  other  pecu- 
liar adaptations  to  the  water,  which  is  their  principal 
place  of  resort.  Such  are  Ducks,  Mergansers,  Loons, 
Petrels,  Gulls,  Pelicans,  &c. 

Q-r alias,  or  Waders,  embrace  those  birds  which  fre- 
quent the  water,  wading  in  the  shallows  in  search  of 
food.  They  are  characterized  by  having  legs,  neck, 
and  bill*  all  very  long.  Such  are  Herons,  Plovers, 
Snipes,  Rails ;  also  the  Flamingo,  which,  however,  by 
its  bill  and  webbed  feet,  seems  to  form  a  transition 
between  this  order  and  the  last. 


124  THE   ANIMAL    KINGDOM. 

Cursores,  or  Kunners,  are  the  Ostriches.  There  are 
only  five  species  now  living — one  in  Africa,  one  in 
India,  one  in  Australia,  and  two  in  South  America. 

Rasores,  or  Scratchers,  comprise  the  Turkey,  Hen, 
Grouse,  Quails,  and  their  allies.  They  are  all  well 
adapted  to  live  principally  on  the  ground.  Doves, 
the  young  of  which  hatch  in  a  very  feeble  condition, 
form  a  sort  of  transition  between  the  Insessores  and 
Easores. 

Scansores,  or  Climbers,  comprise  the  Woodpeckers 
and  Parrots.  Having  two  toes  turned  forward,  and 
two  behind,  they  are  particularly  adapted  to  climbing 
along  the  trees  in  search  of  food. 

Insessores,  or  Perchers,  often  called  Oscines,  com- 
prise our  most  common  birds,  such  as  Crows,  Jays, 
Thrushes,  Finches,  Warblers,  and  their  hundreds  of 
allies. 

Raptores,  or  Eaveners,  comprise  the  Eagles,  Hawks, 
Owls,  Vultures,  and  the  like.  The  birds  of  this 
order  are  characterized  by  powerful  muscles,  sharp 
claws,  and  strong  hooked  bills,  all  of  which,  together 
with  their  great  extent  of  wing,  aid  them  in  capturing 
birds  and  other  animals  for  food.  With  the  excep- 
tion of  Vultures,  that  live  on  dead  animals  which 
they  chance  to  find,  all  the  birds  of  this  order  catch 
their  own  prey. 

MAMMALS  comprise  all  those  animals  which  bring 
forth  their  young  alive,  and  nourish  them  from  their 


THE   ANIMAL    KINGDOM.  125 

own  bodies.  They  all  have  warm  blood.  Mammals 
are  represented  by  about  2000  living  species.  In- 
cluding Man,  the  highest  representative  of  this  class, 
Mammals  comprise  10  Orders — Marsupials,  Pachy- 
derms, Cetaceans,  Edentata,  Insectivora,  Eodents, 
Euminants,  Garni vora,  Quadrumana,  and  Bimana. 
-  Marsupials,  or  Pouched  animals,  comprise  the  Opos- 
sum, Kangaroo,  &c.  All  the  mammals  of  Australia 
belong  to  this  order. 

Pachyderms,  or  Thick-skinned  animals,  include  the 
Horse,  Hippopotamus,  Ehinoceros,  Elephant,  Hog, 
Tapir,  &c. 

Cetaceans  comprise  the  Whales,  Porpoises,  Dolphins, 
and  the  Narwhal. 

Edentata  are  Toothless  animals;  such  as  Sloths, 
Ant-eater,  and  Armadillo. 

Insectivora,  or  Insect- eating  animals,  include  the 
Bat,  Mole,  Hedgehog,  &c. 

Rodents,  or  Gnawers,  include  the  Hare,  Squirrel, 
Beaver,  &c. 

Ruminants  include  the  Ox,  Sheep,  Goat,  Giraffe 
Deer,  Moose,  &c. 

Carnivora,  or  Flesh-eaters,  include  the  Cat  tribe, 
Dog,  Otter,  Mink,  Seal,  Bear,  Badger,  &c. 

Quadrumana,  or  Four-handed,  comprise  all  Monkeys. 

Bimana,  or  Man. 

The  Classification  of  the  Animal  Kingdom,  as  far 
as  Orders,  may  be  presented  in  one  view,  as  seen  on 

the  next  page. 
11* 


126 


THE   ANIMAL    KINGDOM. 


" 

Bimana. 

05 

Quadrumana. 

a 

0 

Carnivora. 

§ 

Dibranchiales. 

no 

Ruminants. 

3-; 

Tetrabranchiates. 

2 

Rodents. 

g 

g 

Insectivora. 

.       .       ~        • 

3 

Edentata. 

0 

„ 

* 

Cetaceans. 

02 

. 

Pachyderms. 
Marsupials. 

1- 

1 

0 
(4    " 

Gasteropods  proper. 
Heteropods. 

Raptores.                     3 

0 

55 

H 
oc 

Pteropods. 

Insessorcs.                  -^ 

O 

O2 

DO 

Scansores. 

O 

Rasores.                    O 

5 

pq 

Cursores.                   "T' 

.     1 

s 

Lamellibranchiales. 

05 

Grallcc.                        '• 

Jj.l 

Tunicata. 

PQ 

Natatores.             -     ^ 

Brachiopods. 

H 

g  . 

S 

Bryozoa. 

g 

PH 
g 

g    f  Ophidians.                 g 

§ 
s 

£    )  Chelonians.                HH 
£    j  Saurians.                   ^ 
p3    [£&2odbf*f«,               H? 

DERMS. 

Holothurioids. 
Echinoids. 

S- 

»  r                i 

0    \ 

Asteroids. 
Crinoids. 

^ 

1                                    r^ 
jz;    I  Frogs.                        <5 

02 

1 

2 

^  •<  Salamanders. 

HM       V 

h-  1 

^    !  Ccecilians. 

<j  i  _•  r 

* 

P4     I. 

3- 

i 

rCtenophorcB. 

w-    f  Cycloids. 

S 

I 

Discophorce. 
Hydroids. 

«    I  Ctenoids. 

<n  1  Ganoids. 

^s     \ 

PH      Placoids 

oo     f 

&   j  Actinoids. 

\ 

1 

g    J  Insects  proper. 
§  «j  Arachnids. 

11 

Alcyonoids. 

g      Myriopods. 

DO 

HH      V 

w 

H 

§      Decapods. 

i-5 

"•<    \  Tetradecapods. 

o 

g    j  Entomostraca. 

H-  1 

EH 

rt      Rotifers. 

P5 

° 

»    J  Anellides. 

&  J  Nematoids. 

£.       Trematods. 

THE   ANIMAL    KINGDOM.  127 

Note. — Besides  the  animals  already  noticed,  there  are 
innumerable  microscopic  organisms  in  all  kinds  of 
water,  which  Ehrenberg  considered  as  animals,  and 
which  he  grouped  under  the  general  term  Infusoria. 
Later  researches  have  shown  that  many  of  these  are 
algae;  and  now  all  these  lowest  forms  of  life  are 
described  by  many  writers  under  the  name  Protozoa. 
Many  of  these  organisms  have  a  silicious  shell,  and 
they  form  extensive  layers  on  the  bottom  of  our  ponds, 
consisting  wholly  of  their  silicious  skeletons,  which, 
under  the  microscope,  appear  like  small  glass  boxes. 

A  FEW  WORDS  ABOUT  THE  DISTRIBUTION  OF  ANIMALS. 

We  have  seen  in  the  last  section  that  vegetation 
differs  in  different  climatic  zones,  and  in  different 
geographical  regions.  The  same  is  true  of  animals. 
Each  climatic  zone,  and  each  grand  division  of  the 
earth's  surface,  has  animals  that  are  peculiar  to  itself. 
Not  only  do  the  same  climates  have  different  animals 
in  the  different  continents,  but  often  in  different  parts 
of  the  same  continent. 

As  in  the  case  of  plants,  it  is  in  the  torrid  zone  that 
animal  life  reaches  its  highest  expression ;  excepting 
only  the  marine  mammals,  which  exhibit  their  highest 
forms  in  the  Whale,  the  Walrus,  and  the  Seal  of  the 
frigid  regions. 

In  the  Arctic  zone  the  same  species  inhabit  all  the 


128  THE   ANIMAL   KINGDOM. 

countries  within  its  borders.  But,  as  remarked  in 
regard  to  plants,  the  animals  of  the  two  hemispheres 
have  less  and  less  of  specific  identity,  as  we  pass  from 
this  zone  towards  the  south,  until  we  find  not  even  a 
family  resemblance  between  the  animals  of  Australia, 
Southern  Africa,  and  the  southern  part  of  South 
America. 

It  is  true  that  the  animals  of  different  continents, 
in  the  same  climates,  generally  resemble  each  other ; 
but  in  nearly  all  cases,  except  in  the  frigid  zone  as 
mentioned  above,  it  is  mere  resemblance,  and  not 
specific  identity.  A  few  facts  will  illustrate  these 
statements. 

The  animals  of  Europe  and  the  United  States 
resemble  each  other  so  closely  that  the  early  settlers 
of  this  country  applied  the  names  of  the  species  they 
had  known  in  Europe  to  the  similar  American  species 
— an  oversight  which  has  caused  confusion  in  names 
ever  since;  for  we  have  but  few  species  of  animals 
identical  with  those  of  Europe.  The  Bears,  the 
Wolves,  the  Foxes,  the  Wild-cats,  the  Deer,  the 
Beaver,  the  Squirrels,  the  Hares,  and  the  Birds  of 
America,  though  resembling  those  of  Europe  and 
Asia,  are  not  the  same  species;  and  the  marks  by 
which  they  can  be  distinguished  from  one  another  are 
readily  found  by  the  experienced  naturalist. 

Again,  there  are  91  species  of  Monkeys  in  America, 
and  79  species  in  the  Old  World ;  yet  there  is  not  one 


THE   ANIMAL    KINGDOM.  129 

species,  nor  genus,  nor  family  even,  common  to  the  two 
hemispheres.  The  monkeys  of  the  New  World  are 
characterized  from  those  of  the  Old  by  their  nostrils 
being  wide  apart ;  by  having  three  false  grinders  on 
each  side  of  both  jaws;  by  having  cheek  pouches; 
and  by  the  prehensile  tail  of  many  species — all  of 
which  characteristics  are  entirely  wanting  in  the  mon- 
keys of  the  Old  World.  The  monkeys  of  America 
are  smaller  and  less  ferocious  than  those  of  the  Eastern 
Hemisphere.  Monkeys  are  found  in  nearly  all  the 
countries  of  the  tropics,  except  New  Guinea  and 
Australia,  and  the  Pacific  Islands  between  these  and 
the  west  coast  of  America.  In  the  New  World  only 
one  species  exists  on  the  west  side  of  the  Andes,  90 
being  found  east  of  the  same  range.  This  fact  shows 
how  faunas  are  limited  by  mountain  ranges. 

In  the  tropics  of  the  Old  World  the  Carnivorous 
animals  are  represented  by  the  Lion,  Leopard,  Tiger, 
&c.,  while  in  tropical  America  we  find  only  the  Puma, 
Jaguar,  and  the  like.  The  tropics  of  the  Old  World 
furnish  those  huge  Pachyderms,  the  Elephant,  Rhino- 
ceros, and  Hippopotamus;  while  these  are  wanting 
in  America,  and  their  places  are  supplied  with  much 
feebler  animals,  the  Tapir  and  the  Peccary.  But  even 
in  the  Old  World,  the  Elephant  is  not  the  same  in 
Africa  as  it  is  in  Asia ;  but  each  of  these  countries, 
and  its  immediate  dependencies,  has  a  species  of  ele- 
phant peculiar  to  itself.  The  same  is  true  of  the 


130  THE   ANIMAL    KINGDOM. 

Rhinoceros.  This  animal  is  not  of  the  same  species 
in  Africa  as  it  is  in  Asia;  and  the  East  Indies  furnish 
several  species  different  from  both  the  African  and 
the  Asiatic.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  there  are  six  distinct 
species  of  rhinoceros — probably  seven — and  these 
inhabit  countries  whose  climates  are  not  materially 
unlike. 

Australia  presents  us  with  some  striking  facts 
which  deserve  mention  here.  This  vast  island,  though 
lying  with  a  large  part  of  its  northern  half  within  the 
tropics,  has  no  Monkeys,  no  Pachyderms,  no  Edentata, 
and  no  Ruminants.  The  mammals  of  this  island  are 
all  Marsupials ;  and  it  is  a  remarkable  fact,  that  except 
in  Australia  and  vicinity,  no  marsupials  exist  in  the 
Old  World,  and  only  one  family — the  Opossum — is 
found  in  America. 

The  Galapagos  Islands  exhibit  facts  no  less  striking. 
These  islands  not  only  differ  in  their  flora  and  fauna 
from  every  other  portion  of  the  world,  but  each  island 
of  the  group  has  its  peculiar  plants  and  animals — such 
as  are  not  found  in  any  of  the  others. 

In  tropical  America  there  are  300  species  of  Hum- 
ming-birds, while  not  a  single  species  is  known  in 
any  part  of  the  Old  World.  A  volume  of  similar 
facts  might  easily  be  recorded,  but  these  will  give  a 
general  idea  of  this  part  of  our  subject. 

The  same  principles,  which  are  indicated  by  the 
above  facts,  apply  to  the  distribution  of  marine  ani- 


THE   ANIMAL    KINGDOM.  131 

mals.  The  ocean,  no  less  than  the  land,  is  divided 
into  zoological  provinces,  each  with  its  own  pecu- 
liar species  of  animals.  Each  coast  has  animals  which 
are  found  nowhere  else.  Of  the  two  hundred  species 
of  molluscs  living  on  the  coast  of  New  England,  fifty 
are  never  found  north  of  Cape  Cod,  and  over  eighty 
species  are  never  found  south  of  that  Cape. 

From  the  facts  stated  above,  we  learn  that  climate 
has  no  power  to  mould  or  shape  the  species  of  ani- 
mals— and  the  same  is  true  in  regard  to  plants — or  to 
change  one  species  into  another.  Were  it  so,  any 
given  climate  would  produce,  in  the  course  of  time, 
the  same  species  of  animals  in  all  the  countries  within 
its  limits.  But  so  far  from  this  being  the  case,  we  find, 
that,  in  spite  of  the  influence  of  climate,  animals  of  the 
different  countries  of  the  same  climatic  zone  are  speci- 
fically if  not  generically  distinct,  and  in  many  cases 
even  family  resemblance  is  wanting. 

Although  through  the  agency  of  man,  and  in  many 
other  ways,  animals  of  one  region  or  country  have  been 
introduced  into  another,  we  are  not  to  look  to  any  such 
accidental  operations  for  an  explanation  of  the  distribu- 
tion of  animals  into  many  well-marked  zoological  pro- 
vinces. On  the  contrary,  the  careful  observer  is  led 
to  believe  that  animals  as  well  as  plants,  have  been 
created  by  an  Omniscient  Being,  in  the  places,  and 
for  the  places,  which  they  now  occupy. 


CHAPTEK  VII. 

FOSSILS,  AND  CLASSIFICATION  OF  THE  ROCK 
FORMATIONS. 


SECTION  I. 

FOSSILS. 

EEMAINS  of  plants  and  animals  are  imbedded  in 
many  of  the  stratified  rocks  of  every  country.  These 
remains  are  called  Fossils,  and  are  among  the  most 
important  aids  in  making  out  a  history  of  our  earth. 
The  department  of  Geology  which  treats  specially 
of  fossils,  is  called  Paleontology. 

In  general,  only  the  hard  parts  of  animals  are 
preserved,  the  soft  parts  having  disappeared.  Corals, 
shells,  and  Crinoids,  are  found  as  perfect  in  form  as 
those  in  our  present  seas.  The  beautiful  Crinoid 
represented  on  the  next  page,  was  dug  out  of  the  lime- 
stone near  St.  Louis,  Mo.  Leaves  and  stems  of  plants 
often  show  the  most  delicate  markings;  and  ferns 
especially  are  found  imbedded  in  the  slates,  as  perfect 

in   outline   as   though   preserved   in   an   herbarium. 

(132) 


FOSSILS. 


133 


Wood  completely  changed  to  silica  shows  the  vege- 
table structure  so  plainly  that  the  family  of  plants  to 
which  it  belongs  can  readily  be  determined. 

Fig.  100. 


Crinoid,  from  the  Limestone  near  St.  Louis,  Mo. 


In  some  cases  the  organic  body  disappears,  leaving 
an  exact  mould  of  itself  impressed  in  the  rock,  and 
this  becoming  filled  with  mineral  matter,  a  perfect 
cast  of  the  organic  body  is  formed.  This  very  often 


12 


134  FOSSILS. 

happens  in  the  case  of  shells,  which  sometimes  leave 
a  cast  of  the  form  of  the  outside,  and  sometimes  of  the 
inside.  A  cast  of  the  inside  is  exhibited  whenever 
the  shell  itself  disappears  after  it  has  been  filled  with 
consolidated  mineral  matter. 

As  the  organic  bodies  in  the  rocks  have  lost  more 
or  less  of  their  vegetable  or  animal  matter,  and,  in 
many  cases,  are  entirely  changed  to  stone,  they  are 
often  called  Petrifactions — a  term  frequently  used  as 
synonymous  with  fossils ;  the  latter  term  is  preferable., 
however,  because  it  includes  all  remains  dug  from  the 
rocks,  whether  they  have  undergone  complete  petri- 
faction or  not. 

Precisely  how  petrifaction  goes  on,  cannot  well  be 
explained.  It  consists  in  the  substitution  of  mineral 
for  animal  or  vegetable  matter.  But  so  perfectly  are 
the  form  and  structure  of  the  organisms  preserved,  it 
is  probable  there  is  a  constant  interchange  of  particles 
between  the  organism  and  the  adjacent  mineral  sub- 
stance. That  is,  as  fast  as  a  particle  of  the  organic 
body  disappears,  a  particle  of  mineral  matter  takes  its 
place.  Whatever  the  process  may  be,  the  fact  is 
established  that  petrifactions  have  taken  place  ex- 
tensively in  past  times,  and  that  they  take  place  at  the 
present  day.  The  organic  body  is  converted  into 
lime,  silica,  pyrites,  or  other  substance,  according  to 
the  material  in  which  the  organism  is  imbedded,  or 
which  is  disseminated  in  the  surrounding  rock. 


FOSSILS.  135 

Some  fossils,  though  buried  for  ages,  have  not  lost 
all  tlieir  animal  matter,  as  can  be  shown  by  chemical 
analysis. 

The  amount  of  organisms  in  the  rocks  is  truly 
astonishing.  In  many  parts  of  the  state  of  New  York, 
and  throughout  a  large  part  of  the  Great  Basin  of  the 
Mississippi,  the  rocks  are  filled  with  corals,  crinoids, 
shells,  and  the  remains  of  other  marine  animals.  In 
fact,  there  are  but  few  parts  of  the  United  States — and. 
the  same  is  true  of  other  countries — where  these  fossils 
may  not  be  found.  In  thousands  of  places  in  New 
York,  and  the  states  farther  west  and  south,  the  great 
bulk  of  the  rocks  is  composed  of  animal  remains. 


rig.  101. 


Perfect  copy  of  Limestone,  filled  with  Steins  of  Oinoids,  near  Lockport,  N.  Y. 

In  these  regions,  every  blow  of  the  geologist's  ham- 
mer is  sure  to  reveal  a  shell,  a  stem  pf  a  crinoid, 


136  FOSSILS. 

a  branch  or  mass  of  coral,  or  perhaps  a  crustacean,  so 
strange  in  form  that  the  observer  at  once  refers  it  to 
an  age  long  since  gone  by. 

In  many  countries,  and  in  some  parts  of  our  own — 
as  at  Sunderland,  Mass. — the  rocks  are  filled  with 
fishes,  so  perfect  in  outline  that  they  can  readily  be 
referred  to  their  true  place  in  the  zoological  scale. 
The  rocks  of  Great  Britain,  and  those  of  the  continent 
of  Europe,  contain  bones  of  gigantic  reptiles,  and 
bones  of  birds ;  and  every  country  on  the  globe  has 
its  fossil  mammals. 

Beds  of  great  thickness  are  not  unfrequently  found 
composed  wholly  of  the  remains  of  microscopic  organ- 
isms. Richmond,  Va..,  stands  upon  a  bed  of  this  kind, 
which  is  fifteen  or  twenty  feet  thick.  The  well-known 
polishing  slate  of  Bilin,  Germany,  is  composed  of  the 
shields  of  organisms  so  small  that  the  remains  of  forty- 
one  thousand  millions  are  contained  in  a  cubic  inch 

.* 

of  the  stone. 

Fossils  occur  in  the  rocks  of  the  deepest  valleys, 
and  in  those  of  the  highest  mountains.  A  large  part 
of  the  Jura  Mountains  is  composed  of  coral;  and  fossils 
occur  in  the  Alps  at  the  height  of  8000  feet,  and  in 
the  Andes  and  Himalayas  at  the  height  of  16,000.  As 
a  matter  of  fact,  they  abound  in  the  rocks  to  the  depth 
of  eight  or  ten  miles. 

"We  may  safely  say,  that,  in  many  districts  where 
fossils  occur,  there  are  more  individuals,  and  some- 


FOSSILS.  137 

times  more  species  in  the  rocks  than  living  species 
upon  the  surface  of  the  same  territory ;  and  all,  except 
the  more  recent  fossils,  represent  plants  and  animals 
which  are  specifically  different  from  those  of  the 
present  day. 

Although  fossils,  as  the  Trilobites  of  Quincy  and 
Braintree,  Mass.,  and  various  organic  remains  found 
at  the  White  Mountains,  N.  H.,  occur  in  rocks  more 
or  less  metamorphic,  they  are  not  found  in  true 
granite,  or  other  unstratified  formations. 

Dendrite,  delicate  expansions  of  mineral  matter, 
closely  resembling  plants,  is  often  found  on  break- 
ing open  all  kinds  of  rocks,  stratified  as  well  as 
unstratified.  These  imitations  of  vegetable  forms 
result  from  the  infiltration  of  mineral  matter  into 
minute  fissures,  and  must  not  be  confounded  with 
organic  remains. 

Representatives  of  all  the  great  Branches  and 
Classes  of  the  Vegetable,  and  of  the  Animal  Kingdom, 
have  been  found  in  the  rocks.  Thirty  thousand  or 
more  species  have  been  noticed,  and  thousands  have 
been  carefully  examined,  and  their  characters  mi- 
nutely recorded.  But  the  work  has  only  begun. 

At  the  death  of  Cuvier,  less  than  one  hundred 
species  of  fossil  fishes  had  been  described ;  through 
the  labors  of  Agassiz,  mainly,  the  number  soon 
reached  1600  or  1700.  Similar  progress  has  been 

made  in  the  examination  of  other  classes  of  the  Ani- 
12* 


138  FOSSILS. 

mal  Kingdom ;  and  the  rapid  discovery  of  new  spe- 
cies leaves  little  room  to  doubt  that  the  fossil  species 
of  animals  equal  the  living. 

What  an  interesting  fact, — that  Nature  has  em- 
balmed her  subjects,  and  handed  them  down  to  us  so 
perfectly  preserved  that  we  are  able  to  get  a  glimpse, 
at  least,  of  the  phases  of  life  during  all  the  past  ages 
of  the  world ! 

These  fossils  show  that  all  the  rocks  in  which  they 
occur  were  once  in  a  soft  state,  like  the  sand  and 
mud  at  the  bottom  of  our  present  waters ;  and  occur- 
ring in  successive  layers,  they  teach  us  that  each 
layer  once  constituted  the  upper  surface,  no  matter 
to  what  depth  it  may  now  be  below  it.  They  show 
that  the  highest  mountains  have  once  bjsen  the  ocean's 
bottom,  and  that,  too,  for  a  long  time,  since  their 
sides  are  filled  with  corals,  crinoids,  shells,  and  other 
organisms,  that  could  have  grown  only  in  the  sea. 

Animals  and  plants  of  the  present  time  have  well- 
marked  characteristics,  according  as  they  are  terres- 
trial, fresh-water,  or  marine.  So  it  was  in  past  times, 
and  hence  a  careful  study  of  fossils  gives  much  infor- 
mation in  regard  to  the  early  physical  geography  of 
our  planet.  We  may  learn  what  parts  were  under 
the  ocean  at  a  given  time,  what  parts  were  estuaries, 
and  what  fresh  water. 


FOSSILS.  139 


SECTION  II. 
CLASSIFICATION   OF  THE    ROCK    FORMATIONS. 

IN  a  previous  chapter  it  was  stated  that  rocks  are 
of  two  classes,  Stratified  and  Unstratified — a  classifi- 
cation based  on  the  structure  of  the  rocks.  Consid- 
ered in  respect  to  fossils,  rocks  may  also  be  divided 
into  two  classes — Fossiliferous,  and  Non-Fossiliferous. 
This  classification  corresponds  somewhat,  but  not 
wholly,  to  the  last. 

The  FOSSILIFEROUS  comprise  all  the  rocks  that 
contain  fossils — that  is,  all  the  stratified  rocks,  except 
gneiss,  mica  slate,  hornblende,  slate,  &c.  The  NON- 
FOSSILIFEROUS  comprise  all  the  unstratified  rocks, 
and  such  of  the  stratified  as  were  formed  before  life 
was  introduced  upon  our  planet. 

All  the  rocks  formed  while  the  conditions  of  the 
earth  were  essentially  the  same,  constitute  one  great 
System.  Every  system  is  a  record  of  the  age  in 
which  that  system  or  group  of  rocks  was  formed,  and 
all  the  rock  systems  studied  in  their  chronological 
order,  reveal  a  history  of  our  globe  from  earliest 
time.  So  true  it  is  that  Nature  is  her  own  historian. 

The  systems  of  fossiliferous  strata,  very  gene- 
rally acknowledged,  named  from  the  newest  to  the 


140    CLASSIFICATION   OF   THE   BOCK  FORMATIONS. 

oldest  inclusive,  are  the  following:  Alluvium  and 
Drift,  Tertiary,  Cretaceous,  Oolitic  or  Jurassic,  New 
Ked  Sandstone,  Carboniferous,  Old  Red  Sandstone 
or  Devonian,  and  Silurian.  These  are  subdivided 
into  many  formations. 

Each  of  the  above  systems  is  characterized  by 
peculiar  fossils,  the  same  species  being  rarely  common 
to  any  two  of  them ;  but  the  same  orders,  and  some- 
times the  same  genera,  are  found  in  two  contiguous 
systems. 

These  groups  of  rocks,  then,  with  their  imbedded 
fossils,  represent  the  great  Life  Periods  of  the  globe. 
One  race  of  plants  and  animals  has  occupied  the 
surface  of  the  earth,  for  long  ages,  and  then  passed 
away ;  and  another  race,  different  and  higher  in  rank 
than  the  one  before  it,  has  taken  its  place ; — rand  this 
has  been  repeated  as  many  times,  at  least,  as  there 
are  groups  indicated  above,  and  probably  many  more. 

Below  the  Fossiliferous  Rocks  are  the  Non-fossil- 
iferous,  embracing  the  oldest  slates,  gneiss,  granites, 
&c.,  as  specified  above. 

The  following  table  shows  the  Classification  of  the 
Rock  Formations,  as  adopted  in  this  treatise,  and  also 
the  divisions  and  groups  which  have  been  made  of 
the  same  formations,  by  some  other  writers. 


CLASSIFICATION   OF   THE   ROCK   FORMATIONS.    141 

TABULAR     VIEW     OF     THE     CLASSIFICATION     OF     BOTH 
STRATIFIED  AND   UNSTRATIFIED   ROCKS. 


w 

go 

1 

-  ALLUVIUM  AND  DRIFT. 

Post-  Pliocene. 

o 

. 

vj  CQ     1 

"*^  W 

Pliocene. 

£  o  •{  TERTIARY. 

Miocene. 

GO 

i* 

1§  I 

Eocene. 

§g 

CRETACEOUS. 

Greensand. 

GQ  ^H 

P> 

|   Wealden. 

CO 

<1  OJ 

H 

O 

Q  Uj 

m 

^  o  • 

00 

OOLITIC  OR  JURASSIC.     • 

Oolite. 
Lias. 

S^ 

02 

NEW  RED  SANDSTONE. 

Trias. 
k  Permian. 

T  Coal  Formation. 

O 

CARBONIFEROUS.              -|  Conglomerate. 

N^ 

Mountain  Limestone. 

P 

OLD  RED    SANDSTONE,  f 
OR  DEVONIAN.          { 

Upper  Old  Red. 
Lower    "      " 

SILURIAN.                       J 
"  f 

Upper  Silurian. 
Lower        " 

NON-FOSSILIFE- 
ROUS  ROCKS. 

AZOIC  ROCKS. 

OLDEST  METAMORPHIC,  | 

AND      FIRST-  FORMED  \ 

ROCKS. 

Quartz    Rock,    Mica 
Slate,    Hornblende 
Slate,   Gneiss,  and 
the  oldest  Granites. 

CLASSIFICATION"    OF   THE    ROCK    FORMATIONS. 


fc/B 

£ 


C3M 


X  / 


/ 


•^'IV^^^V 

V  (J-  -•   -••  ' 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

BRIEF  DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  SEVERAL  SYSTEMS  OF 
FOSSILIFEROUS  ROCKS. 


SECTION  I. 
SILURIAN   SYSTEM. 

THE  Silurian  is  the  lowest  system  of  rocks  in 
which  fossils  are  positively  known  to  occur.  Its 
name  is  derived  from  the  ancient  Roman  designation 
of  the  part  of  England,  where  it  was  first  scientifically 
observed  and  studied.  It  consists  of  two  great  divi- 
sions, the  Upper  and  the  Lower  Silurian ;  but  it  will 
be  sufficient  for  our  purpose  to  consider  both  together. 
For  the  most  part  our  remarks  will  be  of  a  general 
nature,  applicable  to  the  whole  system,  modified, 
however,  by  such  specific  statements  as  the  case 
demands. 

The  Silurian  is  represented  in  every  country  on  the 
globe.  In  North  America,  it  abounds  in  the  Hudson's 
Bay  basin,  in  the  north-eastern  parts  of  New  England, 

(143) 


144  SILURIAN   SYSTEM. 

in  the  valley  of  the  St.  Lawrence,  in  the  central, 
south-eastern,  and  western  portions  of  New  York, 
and  thence  southward  along  the  Alleghany  Mountains. 
Bocks  of  this  system  appear  in  Ohio,  at  Cincinnati 
and  its  vicinity,  and  at  Nashville,  Tennessee.  The 
Silurian  is  also  extensively  represented  in  England, 
Norway  and  Sweden,  Belgium,  Germany,  Kussia,  and 
Australia. 

Like  every  other  system,  the  Silurian  embraces  a 
great  variety  of  rocks.  The  student  must  not  expect 
always  to  find  the  rocks  in  any  system  agreeing  in 
mineralogical  composition,  throughout  considerable 
depths,  and  over  wide  areas. 

The  prevailing  rocks  of  the  Silurian  are  sandstones, 
slates,  conglomerates,  and  limestones. 

The  rocks  of  this  system  are  not  only  of  great 
geographical  extent,  but  also  of  immense  thickness ; 
the  aggregate  of  the  several  stages  being  not  less 
than  30,000  feet. 

The  Silurian  system  abounds  with  fossils.  Besides 
plants  belonging  to  the  Algae  tribe,  more  than  one 
thousand  species  of  animals  have  been  discovered, 
and  the  number  of  individuals  is  immense. 

This  system  contains  representatives  of  the  four 
great  Branches  of  the  Animal  Kingdom — Radiates, 
Molluscs,  Articulates,  and  Vertebrates. 

RADIATES  are  represented  by  two  Classes — 
Polyps  and  Echinoderms — and  by  the  lowest  orders 
of  these  classes. 


SILURIAN   SYSTEM. 


145 


POLYPS  are  represented  of  course  only  by  their 
hard  parts,  to  which  the  name  Coral  is  applied.  In 
many  stages  of  the  Silurian,  this  occurs  in  the  greatest 
abundance,  and  in  a  great  number  of  species.  More 
species  of  coral  occur  in  the  rooks  of  this  system  in 
the  state  of  New  York,  than  are  now  living  on  the 
coast  of  Florida. 

Fig.  103. 


Silurian  Coral.—  Catenipora  escharoides. 

ECHINODEBMS  are  abundant,  but  the  representatives 

Fig  104.  Fig   105. 


Ichthyocrinus  Iceois. 


13 


Caryocrinus  ornatw. 
Some  of  the  forms  of  Silurian  Crinoids. 

K 


146 


SILUKIAN   SYSTEM. 


of  this  class  belong  almost  wholly  to  the  Order  of 
Crinoids. 

MOLLUSCS  appear  in  abundance  in  all  their 
Classes — Acephals,  Gasteropods,  and  Cephalopods. 

The  ACEPHALS  are  abundant  in  the  form  of  BracJiio- 


Fig.  106. 


Fig.  107. 


Leptena  altemata.  Pentamerus  oblongus. 

Some  of  the  common  Silurian  Acephals,  or  Bivalves. 

pods,  the  only  fossils  yet  found  in  the  Potsdam  sand- 
stone, the  oldest  member  of  the  Silurian  in  this 
country. 


SILURIAN  SYSTEM.  147 

GASTEROEODS  are  represented  by  many  species. 

Fig.  110.  Fig.  111. 


uilubatus.  Murchisonia  bellacincta. 

Some  of  the  common  forms  of  Silurian  Gasteropods. 

CEPHAL-OPODS  are  represented  by  "both  straight  and 
coiled   chambered   shells.      The   straight   shells   are 

Fig.  112. 


Portion  of  an  Orthoceratite  imbedded  in  Limestone. 
Silurian  Cephalopod. 

called  Orthoceratites,  and  are  so  abundant  in  some 
parts  of  the  system  as  to  touch  and  overlie  each  other 


148 


SILUKIAN   SYSTEM. 


rendering  it  almost  impossible  to  secure  a  perfect 
specimen.  They  occur  of  all  sizes,  from  a  few  inches 
in  length  to  ten  feet  long,  and  a  foot  in  diameter,  as 
in  the  Black  Kiver  Limestone,  N.  Y.  The  Cephalo- 
pods  of  this,  and  the  three  succeeding  periods,  are  all 
of  the  Order  of  Tetrabranchiates. 

AKTICULATES  appear  mainly  in  the  form  of 
Crustaceans,  which  occur  in  great  numbers.  Because 
none  or  but  very  few  worms  are  found,  we  must  not 
infer  that  they  did  not  exist  j  for  the  softness  of  their 
bodies  would  render  them  less  likely  to  be  preserved 
than  animals  with  harder  parts. 

CEUSTACEANS  are  represented  by  a  very  interesting 


Fig.  114. 


Fig.  115. 


Isatelun  gigas.  Trinudeus  concentricm.  Ceraurus  pleurexanthemus. 

Some  of  the  forms  of  Silurian  Trilobitcs. 

race  of  animals  called  Trilobites.     Their  remains  occur 


SILUKIAN   SYSTEM.  149 

in  the  greatest  abundance,  and  they  have  the  widest 
possible  geographical  distribution.  In  many  cases 
the  same  species  are  found  in  North  America,  Europe, 
and  Australia. 

'  These  ancient  crustaceans  remind  us  of  the  Limulus, 
or  Horse-shoe  Crab,  to  which  they  are  more  nearly 
allied  than  to  any  other  living  species,  excepting, 
perhaps,  a  group  of  crustaceans  known  to  naturalists 
under  the  name  of  Phyllopoda.  Trilobites  had  the 
power  of  rolling  themselves  into  a  ball,  and  many  of 
them  are  found  in  that  position. 

In  the  Trenton  Limestone,  at  Trenton  Falls,  N.  Y., 
they  occur  in  the  greatest  profusion,  mixed  with  shells, 
crinoids,  and  corals.  In  some  cases  the  eyes  of 
trilobites  are  preserved,  and  this  fact  shows  that  there 
was  light  during  the  Silurian  period,  and  that  it 
sustained  the  same  relation  to  animal  life  then  as 
now. 

VERTEBRATES  are  represented  in  the  Silurian 
only  by  FISHES.  No  batrachians,  reptiles,  birds,  or 
mammals  have  left  their  remains  in  this  system  of 
rocks ;  which  is  conclusive  evidence  that  they  had  not 
as  yet  appeared  upon  the  earth.  Nor  have  we  yet 
authentic  evidence  that  fishes  occur  in  the  lower 
portions  of  the  Silurian ;  but  it  is  well  established  that 
their  remains  occur  in  some  of  the  higher  beds.  So 
the  proof  is  positive,  that  the  four  great  Branches,  or 

Types,  of  the  Animal  Kingdom,  began  their  existence 
13* 


150        OLD  EED  SANDSTONE  SYSTEM. 

in  the  same  great  geological  period,  if  not  simultane- 
ously, which  is  highly  probable. 

The  fishes  of  this  period  are  widely  different  from 
those  of  the  present  day.  They  were  of  the  lowest 
order,  having  cartilaginous  skeletons,  and  other  marks 
of  an  inferior  rank. 


SECTION  II. 
OLD  RED   SANDSTONE,    OR   DEVONIAN  SYSTEM. 

This  is  the  next  great  system,  in  the  ascending 
order,  above  the  Silurian,  and,  like  it,  of  immense 
thickness.  The  term  "Old  Eed  Sandstone,"  was  first 
given  to  the  strata  of  this  era,  from  the  red  color  of 
the  prevailing  rocks  where  it  was  first  studied.  Later, 
"  Devonian"  was  applied,  from  Devonshire,  where  this 
system  is  rich  in  fossils.  Both  terms  are  now  used 
indiscriminately. 

In  this  country,  the  Devonian  has  its  greatest 
development  in  New  York  and  Pennsylvania,  and 
thence,  on  a  less  extensive  scale,  it  extends  south  and 
west. 

In  Europe,  it  is  largely  represented  in  Eussia,  in 
Western  Europe,  and  especially  in  England  and  Scot- 
land, being  10,000  feet  thick  in  the  latter  country. 

The  rocks  of  this   system   are  of  various   kinds; 


OLD   BED   SANDSTONE   SYSTEM.  151 

they  are  mainly,  however,  dark  red  sandstones,  and 
conglomerates,  in  the  upper  part,  and  slates,  sand- 
stones, and  limestones,  in  the  lower.  In  the  state  of 
New  York  the  Old  Eed  Sandstone  is  14,000  feet  thick, 
but  is  much  thinner  in  the  states  farther  west  and  south. 

The  fossils  which  fill  some  of  the  stages  of  this 
system,  show  that  the  ancient  oceans  in  which  these 
rocks  were  formed,  swarmed  with  life.  Many  of  the 
organic  forms  of  this  period  bear  a  great  resemblance  to 
those  of  the  Silurian,  but  differ  specifically  from  them. 

The  number  of  fossils  already  noticed  in  the  Devo- 
nian is  about  one  thousand  species.  Plants  are  nume- 
rous, but  not  well  preserved.  Hugh  Miller  has  detected 
Gymnosperms  in  the  rocks  of  this  era. 

All  the  four  Branches  of  the  Animal  Kingdom  are 
represented. 

KADIATES,  as  in  the  Silurian,  appear  in  the  form 

Fig.  116.  Fig.  117. 


CyafhopJiyllum  dianthus.  Favosites  Gothlandica. 

Devonian  Corals. 


152 


OLD   BED   SANDSTONE    SYSTEM. 


of  Corals  and  Crinoids.  Some  of  the  beautiful  speci- 
mens of  the  former  are  represented  by  figs.  116 
and  117. 

MOLLUSCS  are  found   in   all   their  Classes;  and 
present  many  unique  forms. 


Fig.  118. 


Fig.  119. 


Fig.  120. 


Terebratu1a  concentr 


Fig.  121. 


Spirifer  mucronatus  Spirifer  heteroditus. 

Devonian  Acephals. 

Fig.  122. 


Lexonima  ne.cilis. 


Devonian  Gasteropoda. 


ARTICULATES  are  represented  by  WOKMS  and 


OLD   BED   SANDSTONE   SYSTEM.  153 

CRUSTACEANS.  Trilobites,  as  in  the  last  system,  are 
the  only  representatives  of  the  latter,  and  they  are 
less  abundant  than  in  the  previous  period.  Fig.  123 
shows  a  species  of  Trilobite  found  in  all  places  where 
the  Devonian  occurs. 

Fig.  123.  Fig.  124. 


Calymene  bu/o.  Phacops  calliteles. 

Devonian  Trilobites. 

VERTEBRATES  are  represented  by  Fishes  and 
by  Batrachians ;  though  but  few  species  of  the  latter 
have  been  found.  FISHES  abound  in  this  system. 
Introduced  by  the  single  order  of  Placoids,  during 
the  Silurian,  they  appear  in  this  period  in  the  addi- 
tional order  of  Ganoids ;  and  the  two  expand  so  that, 
notwithstanding  the  numerous  corals,  bivalves,  and 
trilobites,  Fishes  constitute  the  leading  feature  in  the 
Devonian  fauna. 

These  two  orders — the  Placoids  and  the  Ganoids — 


154 


OLD  KED  SANDSTONE  SYSTEM. 


not  only  comprise  all  the  Fishes  of  this  and  the  pre- 
ceding period,  but  also  those  of  the  Carboniferous,  the 

Fig.  125. 


Cephalaspis. 


Fig.  126. 


Osteolopis. 
Devonian  Fishes. 


New  Eed  Sandstone,  and  the  Oolitic.  Not  till  the 
Cretaceous  do  the  two  highest  orders  of  this  Class 
make  their  appearance  upon  earth. 


CAKBONIFEKOUS  SYSTEM.  155 

SECTION  III. 

CAKBOXIFEKOUS   SYSTEM. 

This  system  is  next  in  the  ascending  order  above 
the  Old  Eed  Sandstone.  Its  geographical  area  is 
very  wide,  being  found  in  almost  every  country  on 
the  globe.  It  is  very  extensively  represented  in  the 
United  States,  and  in  the  British  Provinces  of  North 
America.  In  Europe  it  is  largely  developed  in  Great 
Britain  and  on  the  Continent. 

The  rocks  of  this  system  are  limestones,  sand- 
stones, conglomerates,  and  shales,  among  which,  in 
many  regions,  are  seams  or  beds  of  mineral  coal, 
from  a  fraction  of  an  inch  to  40  or  50  feet  in  thick- 
ness. The  lower  part  of  this  system  is  occupied  by 
an  extensive  formation,  called  the  Carboniferous  or 
Mountain  Limestone.  Above  the  Mountain  Lime- 
stone, we  find  the  true  Coal  Formation,  in  most  places 
resting  on  Conglomerate.  The  Mammoth  Cave,  and 
many  other  great  caves  of  the  Western  States,  occur 
in  Mountain  Limestone.  This  rock  also  forms  the 
high  bluffs  along  many  of  our  Western  rivers. 

Both  fossil  plants  and  animals  are  abundant  in  the 
Carboniferous.  The  plants,  however,  are  mostly  con- 
fined to  the  Coal  Formation,  while  the  animal  re- 
mains are  most  abundant  in  the  Mountain  Limestone. 


156 


CAKBONIFEKOUS   SYSTEM. 
Fig.  127. 


Neuropteria  hirsuta. 
A  Fern  of  the  Coal  Period. 


Fig.  128. 


Neuropteris  Loshii. 
A  Fern  of  the  Coal  Period. 


The  Carboniferous  was  the  great  plant  period  of 
ancient  times.     The  flora  of  this  era  was  composed 


CARBONIFEROUS   SYSTEM. 


157 


mainly  of  Cryptogamous  plants;  although  Conifers, 
or  those  allied  to  the  Coniferae,  were  also  abundant. 
From  250  to  300  species  of  Ferns  have  been  obtained 
from  the  Coal  Formation.  There  are  only  50  living 
species  of  Ferns  indigenous  to  the  Northern  United 
States,  and  only  60  species  in  all  Europe.  Yet  the 
great  number  specified  above,  has  already  been  dis- 
covered in  the  rocks  of  the  same  countries. 

Fig.  129. 


Pecopteris  distans. 
A  Fern  of  the  Coal  Period. 


Aster  ophyllites,  a  family  of  plants  of  doubtful  affin- 
ity, are  common  in  the   coal   formation.     Figs.  130 


14 


158 


CARBONIFEROUS   SYSTEM. 


and  131  show  two  of  the  common  species  of  this 
family. 

Fig.  130.  Fijr.  131. 


Sphenophyllum  Schlotheimii. 


Asterophyllites  Equisetiformis. 


Calamites  resembling  gigantic  Equisetaceae,  but  also 
of  doubtful  affinity,  are  abundant. 


Fig.  132. 


Stem  of  Calamites  imbedded  in  shale. 


Lepidodendra,  gigantic  Club-Mosses,  or  closely  allied 
to  them,  are  common  in  the  rocks  of  the  coal  period. 
The  bark  of  two  species  is  represented  by  Figs.  133 


CARBONIFEROUS   SYSTEM. 
Fig.  133. 


159 


Lepidodendron  obovatum. 


Lepidodendron  obtusum. 


160 


CARBONIFEROUS   SYSTEM. 


and  134.  It  is  common  to  find  Lepidodendra  20  or 
30  feet  high,  and  the  remains  of  one  in  the  rocks 
at  Carbondale,  Pa.,  show  that  it  was  at  least  75  feet 
high,  and  two  feet  in  diameter. 

The  living  Club  Mosses,  in  the  temperate  zones, 
are  trailing  plants,  or  rise  to  the  height  of  only  a  few 
inches ;  and  even  in  the  torrid  zone,  the  largest  are 
not  above  three  feet  high. 

Trees,  called  Sigillaria  from  their  peculiarly  marked 
stems,  are  very  abundant  in  the  rocks  of  this  era. 
A  portion  of  the  stem  of  one  of  the  most  common 
species  is  represented  by  the  following  cut. 

Fig.  135. 


Sigillaria  reniformis. 


They  grew  from  30  to  70  feet  high.  The  woody 
portion,  in  many  cases,  has  decayed,  leaving  the  bark, 
which  is  often  found  pressed  together,  forming  two 


CAKBONIFEEOUS    SYSTEM.  161 

thin  layers  of  pure  coal.  Wherever  the  trees  remain 
upright,  that  is,  at  right  angles  to  the  planes  of  strati- 
fication, as  they  do  in  great  numbers  in  the  coal  fields 
of  Nova  Scotia,  the  trunk  preserves  the  cylindrical 
form. 

Between  thirty  and  forty  species  of  Sigillaria  have 
already  been  discovered,  and  they  seem  to  be  the  most 
numerous  of  all  the  trees  of  the  coal  period.  It  is 
difficult  to  refer  them  to  their  true  place  in  the 
botanical  scale.  Though  having  some  characters 
which  connect  them  with  ferns,  they  are  probably  as 
nearly  related  to  Cycads  as  to  any  living  family. 

The  root  of  these  trees  was  for  a  long  time  described 
under  the  name  of  Stigmaria,  from  the  impression 
that  it  was  a  distinct  plant.  But  in  many  instances, 
within  a  few  years,  the  root  and  stem  have  been  found 
in  contact,  thus  proving  Sigillaria  and  Stigmaria  parts 
of  one  plant. 

Fifteen  hundred  or  more  species  of  animals  have 
been  found  in  the  Carboniferous  system.  The  Moun- 
tain Limestone  is  especially  rich  in  fossils,  represent- 
ing the  Animal  Kingdom  in  all  its  branches.  Many 
species  unknown  in  the  previous  systems  are  abun- 
dant in  this. 

EADIATES  appear  in  numerous  species  of  Corals 
and  Grinoids. 

Both  are  very  abundant  in  the  Mountain  Limestone 
of  the  Western  States.  Some  of  the  beautiful  speci- 
mens of  crinoids  are  represented  by  Figs.  136, 137, 138. 
14*  L 


162 


CAKBONIFEKOUS   SYSTEM. 
Fig.  136. 


Plvttycrinus. 


Fig.   137. 


Fig.  138. 


Fentremites  ccrvinus.  Pentremites  pyrtformis. 

Carboniferous  Crinoids. 


CAKBONIFEKOUS   SYSTEM. 


163 


Corals  occur  in  great  perfection.     A  characteristic 
species  is  represented  by  Fig.  139. 

Fig.  139. 


A  Carboniferous  Coral.— Lithoslrotion  basalt  if  or  me. 

MOLLUSCS  are  represented  in  all  their  Classes. 
The  family  called  Productidse  reaches  its  highest  ex- 
pression in  this  era. 

Fig.  140. 


A  Carboniferous  Mollusc.— Product™  semireticulatus. 


164  CARBONIFEROUS   SYSTEM. 

CEPHALOPODS,  represented  by  both  straight  and 
coiled  chambered  shells,  are  abundant  in  the  Moun- 
tain Limestone. 

AKTTCULATES  are  represented  by  Trilobites  and 
INSECTS  ;  the  latter  being,  so  far  as  we  know,  the  first 
land  inhabitants  of  our  earth.  Trilobites,  so  abundant 
in  the  Silurian  and  Devonian,  appear  here  in  only  a 
few  species ;  and  above  this  system  not  one  is  found. 
The  race  of  Trilobites  ended  with  the  Carboniferous 
period. 

YEKTEBEATES  appear  in  the  form  of  Fishes 
and  Batrachians. 

FISHES,  as  in  the  rocks  of  the  previous  period,  are 
exceedingly  abundant. 

Fig.  141. 


Amblypterus. 
Carboniferous  Fish. 


BATRACHIANS  have  left  their  foot-prints  on  the 
carboniferous  rocks  in  Nova  Scotia,  New  Brunswick, 
and  Pennsylvania. 


CARBONIFEROUS   SYSTEM. 


165 


MORE    SPECIFIC    REMARKS    ON   THE    COAL    FORMATION. 

In  most  regions  where  the  coal  formation  occurs, 
there  are  several  beds  or  seams  of  coal  with  layers 
of  shales,  sandstones,  conglomerates,  and  sometimes 
limestone,  intervening.  In  some  cases,  the  coal-beds 
are  separated  by  only  a  few  feet ;  in  others,  several 
hundred  feet  of  rocks  intervene.  In  the  district 
called  the  Joggins,  in  Nova  Scotia,  the  coal  forma- 
tion is  14,000  feet  thick,  and  contains  seventy-six 
beds  or  seams  of  coal ;  only  part  of  these,  however, 
are  of  workable  thickness.  In  the  basin  of  the 
Schuylkill,  Pennsylvania,  there  are  about  fifty  seams, 
twenty-five  of  which  exceed  three  feet  each  in  thick- 
ness. One  bed,  at  Mauch  Chunk,  is  from  forty  to 
fifty  feet  thick. 

The  way  in  which  coal  occurs  interstratified  with 
conglomerates,  sandstones,  and  shales,  may  be  readily 

Fig.  142. 


Showing  the  position  of  Coal-beds  near  Tamaqua,  Pa. 

understood  from  the  accompanying  cut,  where  the 
black  layers  represent  the  coal-beds. 

There  are  two  principal  kinds  of  mineral  coal — 
Anthracite  and  Bituminous. 


1G6  CAKBONIFEKOUS   SYSTEM. 

Anthracite  is  mostly  without  bitumen,  very  hard, 
with,  a  high  lustre,  often  iridescent,  and  burns  with  a 
pale  blue  flame. 

Bituminous  coal  abounds  with  bitumen,  is  softer 
than  anthracite,  with  little  lustre,  and  burns  with  a 
bright  flame.  It  appears  in  many  varieties,  one  of 
which  is  the  well-known  cannel  coal. 

There  is  every  possible  grade  between  the  true 
anthracite  and  that  which  may  be  properly  called 
bituminous  coal. 

Mineral  coal  has  been  found  in  nearly  all  parts 
of  the  world,  but  more  has  been  discovered  in  North 
America  than  in  all  other  countries. 

Great  Britain  has  12,000  square  miles  of  coal-field, 
and  the  continent  of  Europe  about  10,000  square 
miles;  while  the  area  of  coal-fields  in  Nova  Scotia, 
New  Brunswick,  and  vicinity,  is  8000  square  miles, 
and  the  area  of  those  in  the  United  States  more  than 
200,000. 

The  eastern  half  of  North  America  contains  five 
great  coal-fields ;  that  of  Nova  Scotia,  New  Brunswick, 
&c.,  embracing,  as  stated  above,  8000  square  miles; 
the  Great  Appalachian  coal  field,  extending  from 
Ohio  and  northern  Pennsylvania  to  Alabama,  em- 
bracing 80,000  square  miles ;  the  Michigan  coal-field, 
15,000  square  miles ;  the  Indiana,  Illinois,  and  Ken- 
tucky coal-field,  50,000  square  miles ;  and  the  Iowa 
and  Missouri  coal-field  about  60,000  square  miles. 


CARBONIFEROUS    SYSTEM.  1G7 

Professor  H.  D.  Kogers,  in  his  recent  able  Keport 
on  the  Geology  of  Pennsylvania,  states  the  approxi- 
mate amount  of  coal  in  each  of  the  great  coal-fields 
of  the  world.  I  give  his  figures  below. 

Tons. 

Belgium,           .         .         .  36,000,000,000 

France,      ....  59,000,000,000 

British  Isles,     .         .         .  190,000,000,000 

Pennsylvania,            .         .  316,400,000,000 

Great  Appalachian  Coal-Field,  1,387,500,000,000 

Ind.,  111.,  and  Ky.,      "         "  1,277,500,000,000 

la.,  Mo.,  and  Ark.,     "         "  739,000,000,000 
All  the  coal-fields  of  North 

America,      .         .         .  4,000,000,000,000 

It  will  be  observed  that  the  amount  of  coal  in 
North  America  is  twenty-one  times  as  much  as  that 
of  Great  Britain. 

It  is  well  established  that  the  coal-beds  are  of  vege- 
table origin.  This  might  be  inferred  from  the  fact  that 
coal  is  mainly  Carbon,  which  substance  forms  from 
one-fourth  to  one-half  of  all  the  vegetation  on  the 
globe.  But,  prepared  in  very  thin  slices,  coal  shows 
its  vegetable  structure  under  the  microscope,  and 
often  even  to  the  naked  eye. 

The  vegetation  which  formed  the  coal-beds,  accu- 
mulated, by  the  slow  growth  of  plants,  just  as  peat 


168  CAEBONIFEKOUS   SYSTEM. 

is  now  forming  in  peat-bogs.  Our  peat-bogs  are 
only  incipient  coal-beds;  and  need  only  to  be  sub- 
merged, and  covered  with  great  depths  of  strata,  in 
order  to  become  genuine  coal.  The  varieties  of  coal 
offer  no  objection  to  this  statement ;  all  being  alike 
in  their  essential  element,  carbon,  and  differing  only 
as  they  have  been  subject  to  different  influences. 
Anthracite  is  only  bituminous  coal,  which,  by  heat 
and  pressure,  has  been  deprived  of  its'  volatile  mat- 
ter; and  the  varieties  between  the  true  bituminous 
coal  and  the  true  anthracite,  have  resulted  from  dif- 
ferent degrees  of  heat  and  pressure  to  which  the 
vegetation  that  formed  them  has  been  subjected.  An- 
thracite is  found  only  in  situations  where  the  strata 
have  been  heated  and  disturbed  since  the  coal  was 
formed,  and  the  coal  becomes  more  and  more  bitu- 
minous as  we  recede  from  such  regions.  The  coal  in 
Massachusetts  and  Ehode  Island,  and  in  the  eastern 
part  of  Pennsylvania,  is  anthracite ;  but  in  the  Great 
Mississippi  Basin,  where  the  strata  are  little  disturbed, 
only  bituminous  varieties  are  found. 

The  succession  of  coal-beds,  with  beds  of  rock 
intervening,  which  is  found  in  most  coal-fields,  im- 
plies that  the  lands  have  undergone  successive  eleva- 
tions and  depressions,  during  vast  periods  of  time. 
Such  vertical  movements,  we  shall  learn  in  a  subse- 
quent chapter,  are  still  going  on  in  various  parts  of 
the  world. 


NEW   BED  SANDSTONE   SYSTEM.  169 

Iron,  though  common  in  other  rocks,  abounds  in 
the  Carboniferous  System,  and  frequently  occurs  in 
close  proximity  to  the  coal.  This  is  the  case  in 
England.  In  the  United  States  there  is  iron  enough 
to  supply  the  world.  Coal,  iron,  and  limestone  are  all 
abundant  in  the  same  geological  system ;  and  in 
smelting  iron  both  the  others  are  required.  Such 
sources  of  national  prosperity  cannot  be  the  result 
of  accident.  Are  they  not  proofs  of  Design  and 
Divine  Benevolence? 


SECTION  IV. 

NEW  RED  SANDSTONE   SYSTEM. 

This  system  is  next,  in  the  ascending  order,  above 
the  Carboniferous.  It  consists  of  two  formations  or 
stages,  the  Upper,  and  the  Lower  New  Eed.  The 
former  is  often  called  the  Trias,  from  the  three  divi- 
sions which  it  exhibits  in  Germany,  where  it  was  first 
studied;  and  the  latter,  the  Permian,  from  the  pro- 
vince of  Perm,  where  this  stage  is  largely  developed. 

This  system  is  composed  of  red  sandstones  and 
shales  in  the  upper  part,  and  magnesian  limestones  in 
the  lower  part. 

The  sandstones  and  shales  of  Connecticut  River 
15 


170  NEW  BED   SANDSTONE   SYSTEM. 

valley,  New  Jersey,  Virginia,  and  North  Carolina, 
and  the  Permian  limestones  and  shales  of  Kansas, 
represent  the  New  Eed  in  this  country. 

This  system  is  well  represented  in  Europe;  and 
both  in  Great  Britain  and  on  the  Continent,  its  upper 
portions  contain  extensive  deposits  of  gypsum  and 
rock-salt. 

The  New  Bed  Sandstone  is  almost  everywhere 
penetrated  by,  and  interstratified  with  igneous  rocks ; 
and  in  many  cases  they  overlie  the  strata  in  immense 
masses  of  greenstone  and  basalt. 

In  many  places  in  the  Connecticut  Kiver  valley, 
the  layers  of  rocks  of  this  period  are  covered  with 
ripple-marks,  as  distinct  as  those  upon  the  shores  and 
shallow  estuaries  of  to-day. 

Though  plants  and  all  the  Branches  of  the  animal 
kingdom  are  represented  in  the  New  Eed  Sandstone, 
the  fossils  which  represent  the  YEKTEBKATES  of 
this  period  are  of  special  interest. 

Besides  FISHES,  which  are  abundant,  evidences  of 
other  Vertebrates  are  found  in  the  foot-prints  which 
occur  in  the  rocks  of  this  era,  both  in  this  country 
and  in  Europe.  But  no  other  place  on  the  globe  is 
so  much  noted  for  fossil  foot-prints  as  the  valley  of 
the  Connecticut.  Thanks  to  Professor  Hitchcock, 
Dr.  Deane,  and  others,  we  are  pretty  well  acquainted 
with  the  paleontology  of  this  beautiful  valley. 

From  the  northern  part  of  Massachusetts  to  New 


NEW  KED   SANDSTONE   SYSTEM. 


171 


Haven,  Ct.,  a  distance 
of  90  miles,  the  sand- 
stone of  this  valley 
reveals  foot-prints  in 
the  greatest  abundance. 
They  occur  in  great 
numbers,  on  successive 
layers,  to  the  depth  of 
many  feet.  Professor 
Hitchcock,  who,  for 
nearly  a  quarter  of  a 
century,  has  studied, 
with  untiring  zeal,  the 
Connecticut  river  sand- 
stone, finds  that  it  con- 
tains the  tracks  of  more 
than  100  species  of  ani- 
mals, of  which  number 
Batrachians,  Eeptiles, 
Birds,  and  Marsupial- 
oids  constitute  the  prin- 
cipal part. 

Some  of  the  tracks 
are  very  small,  while 
others  are  of  enormous 
dimensions.  Slabs  of 
sandstone,  containing 
nearly  all  the  species  of 


Fig.  143. 


Tracks  of  Brontozoum  giganteum. 


172  NEW   BED   SANDSTONE   SYSTEM. 

Fig.  144. 


Tracks  of  Otozoum  Moodii. 


NEW  BED   SANDSTONE   SYSTEM.  173 

tracks,  are  deposited  in  the  Ichnological  Cabinet  of 
Amherst  College.  Slabs  from  Northampton  show 
foot-prints  18  inches  long,  and  the  stride  from  3  to 
5  feet !  These,  it  is  supposed,  were  made  by  a 
gigantic  bird,  which  Professor  Hitchcock  has  named 
Brontozoum  giganteum. 

Fig.  144  represents  tracks  found  at  South  Hadley, 
and  several  other  places  in  the  valley  of  the  Con- 
necticut. These  tracks  are  20  inches  long,  and  15 
inches  wide !  According  to  the  distinguished  geolo- 
gist mentioned  above,  they  were  made  by  a  huge 
Batrachian,  which  he  has  named  Otozoum  Moodii. 

What  a  strange  contrast  between  the  present  fauna 
of  this  valley,  and  that  which  held  sway  during  the 
Ked  Sandstone  period ! 

In  many  cases,  the  same  foot-print  extends  through 
several  layers;  and  thus  a  given  specimen  may  be 
multiplied  by  splitting  the  layers  apart.  The  upper 
surface  shows  the  imprint,  and  the  under  surface  the 
same  track  in  relief.  Professor  Hitchcock  has  found 
many  such  specimens,  and  secured  the  layers  by 
hinges  so  as  to  form  a  real  "Stone  Book," — Nature's 
own  Record  of  Sandstone  days. 

One  of  these  specimens  is  represented  by  Fig.  145. 

In  numerous  instances,  impressions  of  rain-drops 
are  found  on  the  Connecticut  river  sandstone,  and  not 
unfrequently  on  the  same  slabs  with  the  foot-marks. 
The  meteorological  phenomena  of  that  distant  age 

are  thus  registered  with  unerring  certainty. 
15* 


174 


NEW  KED   SANDSTONE   SYSTEM 

Fig.  145. 

1« 


The  same  Tracks  impressed,  and  in  relief. 


"We  learn  from  these  tracks  of  the  Connecticut 
valley,  that  the  rocks  upon  which  they  occur;  were 
formed  in  an  estuary — along  the  shores  and  in  the 
shallows  of  which  the  inhabitants  of  ancient  times 
congregated. 

In  closing  this  section,  I  ought  to  say,  that  eminent 
geologists  believe  that  the  rocks  of  this  country 
which  are  here  described  under  the  head  of  New  Eed 
Sandstone,  belong  to  the  Oolitic,  or  at  least  to  the 
Lias,  the  lowest  formation  of  the  Oolitic  System. 
But  perhaps  this  point  is  not  yet  fully  established. 


OOLITIC   SYSTEM.  175 

SECTION  V. 
OOLITIC   SYSTEM. 

This  system,  embracing  the  Lias,  succeeds,  in  the 
ascending  order,  the  New  Red  Sandstone.  In  this 
country  it  has  been  carefully  studied  only  in  Virginia, 
but  it  occurs  also  in  the  region  of  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains. In  England,  it  extends  in  a  belt  thirty  miles 
broad,  from  Yorkshire  to  Dorsetshire.  It  is  also 
extensively  developed  in  the  Jura  Mountains,  and 
hence  is  often  called  the  Jurassic  System. 

The  rocks  of  this  period  are  limestones,  clays, 
shales,  and  sandstones ;  and  occasionally  beds  of  coal. 
The  well  known  lithographic  stone  of  Solenhofen, 
Bavaria,  belongs  to  the  Oolitic. 

The  name  Oolitic  was  given  to  the  system  from  the 
egg-shaped  nodules  which  abound  in  some  of  its 
limestones. 

Plants  were  abundant  in  this  era.  They  were 
mainly  Ferns,  Cycads,  and  true  Conifers. 

RADIATES  are  represented  in  all  their  Classes. 
Whole  reefs  of  coral  are  found  in  the  position  where 
they  grew.  The  formation  in  England  called  the 
Coral  Rag,  is  mostly  composed  of  coral,  and  hence  its 
name. 

ACALEPHS,  or  Jelly-fishes,  are  found  for  the  first 


176  OOLITIC   SYSTEM. 

time,  in  the  rocks  of  this  period.  They  occur  at 
Solenhofen,  Bavaria.  This  may  or  may  not  have 
been  the  time  in  geologic  history,  when  they  were 
introduced  upon  earth ;  for  their  perishable  nature 
would  render  their  preservation  quite  uncertain. 

ECHINO  DEEMS  are  abundant 
in  the  rocks  of  this  era,  and 
are  represented  by  beautiful 
Crinoids,  Star-fishes,  and  a 
great  variety  of  Echinoids. 

MOLLUSCS  appear  in  all 
their  Classes.  The  forms  of 

•^BSS* 

the   previous  ages,  however, 

i  •  i  Echinus  of  the  Oolitic,  with  spines 

have  given  place  to  a  great  removed.' 

number  of  new  ones.  Brachiopods,  which  have  been 
very  numerous  in  the  preceding  periods,  are  abun- 
dant here  in  only  one  family,  the  Terebratula3. 

CEPHALOPODS.  It  is  in  this  period  and  the  next,  that 
this  interesting  class  reaches  its  highest  expression. 
The  Orthoceras,  so  abundant  in  the  earliest  systems, 
have  wholly  died  out ;  but  Ammonites  and  Nautili, 
which  occupied  a  comparatively  subordinate  place  in 
the  paleozoic  fauna,  appear  here  and  in  the  next  sys- 
tem, in  the  greatest  abundance;  and  their  highly 
varied  and  ornamented  shells  are  not  without  great 
interest  even  to  the  casual  observer. 

The  Ammonite  differs  from  the  Nautilus  in  having 
folded  partitions,  while  those  of  the  latter  are  simply 
curved,  as  seen  in  Fig.  81  on  the  116th  page. 


OOLITIC   SYSTEM.  177 

Dibranchiates  first  make  their  appearance  in  this 
period.  They  are  represented  by  a  family  called 
Belemnites,  animals  much  resembling  modern  Cuttle- 
fishes. 

Fig.  147.  Fig.  148. 


Ammonites  Jason.  Ammonites  llumphresianus. 

Oolitic  Cephalopoda. 

AETICULATES  are  represented  by  several  fami- 
lies of  INSECTS. 

YEETEBEATES  appear  in  the  form  of  Fishes, 
and  Eeptiles ;  and  traces  of  the  lowest  order  of 
Mammals  occur  in  some  of  the  upper  stages  of  the 
system.  But  the  true  Mammals  do  not  make  their 
appearance  till  the  Tertiary. 

FISHES.  Agassiz  has  described  sixty  species  from 
the  Lias  of  Lyme  Eegis,  in  England,  not  one  species 
of  which  exists  in  our  present  waters. 

EEPTILES  of  this  period,  and  the  next,  appear  in 
M 


178 


OOLITIC    SYSTEM. 


OOLITIC   SYSTEM.  179 

forms  more  strange  and  monstrous  than  those  of  any 
other  age  of  the  world.  Some  of  the  most  extraordi- 
nary are  known  among  naturalists,  under  the  generic 
names  of  Icthyosaurus,  Plesiosaurus,  Megalosaurus, 
and  Pterodactyl. 

The  Icthyosaurus  was,  in  some  instances,  nearly 
30  feet  long.  The  skeleton  of  one  in  the  British 
Museum,  shows  that  the  animal  must  have  been  25 
feet  in  length.  In  some  specimens,  the  jaws  are  6  feet 
long;  the  cavity  for  the  eye  14  inches;  the  teeth  180 
in  number;  and  the  vertebrae  more  than  100.  The 
locomotive  organs  of  this  animal  were  paddles  each 
composed  of  more  than  100  bones.  Its  skin  was 
naked,  as  shown  by  a  portion  found  fossil.  Its  food 
consisted  of  fishes  and  reptiles,  as  shown  by  their  half- 
digested  remains  found  with  the  skeleton. 

This  animal  is  found  both  in  England  and  on  the 
Continent. 

The  Plesiosaurus  was  11  feet  long,  as  shown  by  a 
specimen  in  the  British  Museum.  Its  most  remark- 
able peculiarity  is  its  long  neck,  which  contains  30 
vertebrae.  Twenty  species  have  been  found. 

The  Pterodactyl  is  the  most  wonderful  reptile  of 
this  period,  or  any  other.  Its  body  was  like  that  of 
a  mammal,  its  wings  like  those  of  a  bat,  and  its  jaws 
and  teeth  like  those  of  a  crocodile.  Probably  this 
animal  could  walk,  fly,  or  swim,  as  necessity  re- 


180  OOLITIC  SYSTEM. 

quired.      Seven   species  "have  been  found  at  Solen- 
hofen,  Bavaria. 

Fig.  161. 


Pterodactyl. 


It  is  in  this  period  and  the  next  that  we  find  the 
first  remains  of  genuine  Chelonians. 


CRETACEOUS  SYSTEM.  181 

SECTION  VI. 
CRETACEOUS,  OR  CHALK  SYSTEM. 

Tliis  system  is  extensively  developed  both  in 
Europe  and  in  North  America,  though  in  the  latter 
the  pure  chalk  beds  are  wanting. 

It  occupies  a  considerable  portion  of  New  Jersey, 
and  thence  appears  at  intervals  as  far  south  as  Ala- 
bama ;  from  the  latter  state  it  extends,  in  a  widening 
belt,  to  the  Rocky  Mountains.  In  Europe,  it  extends 
from  Great  Britain,  with  some  interruptions,  across 
the  continent  to  the  southern  part  of  Russia,  and 
from  Sweden  to  Bordeaux  in  France. 

The  rocks  of  this  system  are  chalk  and  other  cal 
careous  deposits,  sands,  sandstones,  and  marls.  The 
pure  chalk  strata  are  confined  to  the  upper  part  of  the 
system.  Many  of  the  beds  of  argillaceous  and  silicious 
limestones,  also  sands  and  sandstones,  are  of  a  green 
color ;  hence  the  term  Greensand  is  often  applied  to  a 
portion  of  the  Cretaceous.  Below  the  Greensand  in 
the  south-eastern  part  of  England,  there  is  a  fresh- 
water deposit,  called  the  Wealden,  which  we  may 
class  with  the  rocks  of  this  period,  though  generally 
described  as  a  distinct  formation. 

Fossil  plants  of  the  Cretaceous  period  are  not  very 
16 


182 


CEETACEOUS   SYSTEM. 


abundant.  Sponges  and  other  low  forms  of  vegeta- 
tion are  however  often  found  in  the  flint  nodules. 
But  the  rocks  of  this  group  abound  with  animal 
remains.  In  fact,  the  chalk-beds  are  almost  wholly 
of  animal  origin. 

E  ADI  ATE  S  are  numerous  in  the  form  of  Corals 
and  Echinoderms. 


Fig.  152. 


Fig.  153. 


Spatangus  parastatus.  Cidarites  armiffer. 

Cretaceous  Echinoderms. 


MOLLUSCS  are  abundant,  and  appear  in  many 
new  species. 

The  CEPHALOPODS  are  especially  rich  in  variety  of 
form.  Fig.  154  represents  a  species  of  Belemnite 
common  to  the  Cretaceous  strata  of  the  United  States, 
Europe,  and  Asia.  Fig.  156  reminds  us  of  the  Ortho- 
ceratites  of  the  previous  periods,  but  differs  essen- 
tially from  them  in  having  dentated  partitions,  as 


CRETACEOUS   SYSTEM.  183 

seen  in  the  figure  before  us.     This  species  is  common 
in  New  Jersey,  Alabama,  and  Texas. 

Fig.  154. 


Belemititella.  mucronata. 

Fig.  155.  Fig.  156. 


Ammonites  Nebrascensis.  Bzculttuu  ovatus, 

Cretaceous  Cephalopoda. 

AETICULATES  are  not  numerous ;  but  CRUSTA- 
CEANS are  found  in  the  chalk  of  Europe. 

VERTEBRATES  are  represented  by  numerous 
Fishes  and  Reptiles .  Birds  have  also  been  found  in 
the  Wealden. 

FISHES  are  abundantly  represented  by  teeth,  jaws, 
and  vertebrae;  whole  specimens  being  more  rarely 
found  than  in  rocks  of  a  more  compact  nature.  In 


184  CKETACEOUS   SYSTEM. 

this  period  Ctenoids  and  Cycloids  first  make  their 
appearance  upon  the  earth.  Up  to  this  era  all  the 
fishes,  though  exceedingly  numerous,  belong  to  the 
Placoids  and  Ganoids. 

The  EEPTILES  of  this  era,  although  of  gigantic 
dimensions,  seem  more  nearly  related  to  those  of  the 
present  day  than  any  of  those  belonging  to  the  pre- 
ceding periods. 

The  Mososaurus,  found  at  Masstricht,  and  now  in 
the  Museum  at  Paris,  was  a  reptile  25  feet  long. 

The  Iguanodon,  whose  remains  have  been  found  in 
the  "Wealden,  was  a  reptile  30  feet  long,  14  feet  in 
girth,  and  with  a  foot  6  feet  in  length.  In  the  form 
of  its  teeth,  this  reptile  resembled  the  modern  Iguana 
of  the  tropical  regions  of  America.  Dr.  Mantell, 
who  has  examined  the  bones  of  more  than  seventy 
individuals,  estimates  the  length  of  a  full-grown 
Iguanodon  at  50  or  60  feet. 

Such  were  the  Eeptiles  that  have  left  their  skeletons 
to  give  us  some  idea  of  reptilian  life  during  this  and 
the  preceding  era. 

The  reign  of  gigantic  reptiles  terminated  with  the 
Cretaceous  period. 


TEETIAKY  SYSTEM.  185 


SECTION  VII. 
TERTIARY   SYSTEM. 

This  system  consists  of  three  distinct  stages — the 
Lower,  Middle,  and  Upper,  or  the  Eocene,  Miocene, 
and  Pliocene. 

The  Tertiary  system  covers  a  large  portion  of  the 
sea-board  States,  from  New  Jersey  to  Texas  inclusive. 
It  also  occupies  wide  areas  west  of  the  Kocky  Moun- 
tains. Tertiary  deposits  cover  a  large  portion  of 
Western,  Central,  and  Southern  Europe.  London, 
Paris,  and  Yienna  stand  upon  the  Tertiary.  It  is 
also  largely  represented  in  South  America  and  in 
Asia. 

The  rocks  of  this  period  are  limestones,  sandstones, 
gypsum,  marls,  and  clays.  Yolcanic  rocks  also  pene- 
trate, and  are  interstratified  with  the  rocks  of  this  era. 
This  is  especially  the  case  in  Auvergne,  France,  where 
there  are  numerous  craters  of  extinct  volcanoes  of 
Tertiary  age.  The  inter  stratification  of  volcanic  pro- 
ducts with  the  sedimentary  deposits,  shows  us  that, 
in  the  districts  above  mentioned,  volcanoes  were  very 
active  during  this  period.  * 

Beds  of  brown  coal,  of  Tertiary  age,  are  numerous 
both  in  this  country  and  in  Europe. 


186 


TERTIARY   SYSTEM. 


The  Tertiary  marks  a  new  and  important  era  in  the 
earth's  history.  The  existence  of  the  present  races 
of  plants  and  animals  is  strikingly  foreshadowed  in 
its  fossil  organisms. 

Plants  are  very  abundant,  especially  in  connection 
with  the  beds  of  brown  coal  and  lignite. 


Fig.  157. 


Fig.  158. 


Fig.  159. 


Fossil  Fruit,  Brandon,  Vt.— HITCHCOCK. 

Animals  of  this  period  are  land,  fresh-water,  and 
marine,  and  are  closely  allied  to  those  of  the  present 
day ;  belonging  in  most  cases  to  the  same  families,  and 
often  to  the  same  genera,  and  in  some  instances,  in 
the  case  of  shells,  to  the  same  species. 

Species  are  also  more  limited  in  their  geographical 
range  than  at  any  previous  period,  which  further 
indicates  an  approach  to  the  existing  state  of  things 
on  our  globe'. 

KADIATES  are  abundant,  but  many  of  the  forms 
common  in  the  past  ages  are  unknown  in  this.  Corals 


TERTIARY   SYSTEM. 


187 


are  numerous,  and  are  closely  allied  to  those  of  the 
present  day.  Figs.  160  and  161  represent  two  species 
from  the  Tertiary  of  the  Middle  and  Southern  States. 


Fig.  160. 


Fig.  161. 


Madrepora  palmata. 

Tertiary  Corals. 


Oculina. 


Crinoids,  which  were  exceedingly  numerous  in  the 
paleozoic  period,  and  even  in  the  secondary,  are  here 
represented  by  only  a  few  species.  But  Asteroids  and 
Echinoids  appear  in  great  numbers,  and  in  new  forms. 

MOLLUSCS.  The  absence  of  certain  representa- 
tives of  this  branch  is  a  striking  evidence  of  a  new 
geological  era.  The  Ammonites  and  the  Belemnites, 
which  were  so  abundant  in  the  last  two  systems,  are 
not  found  in  this.  They  ceased  to  exist  at  the  close 
of  the  Cretaceous.  Molluscs,  however,  are  very 
abundantly  represented,  and  by  new  species. 


188  TERTIARY   SYSTEM. 

Fig.  162.  Fig.  163. 


Cardita  planicostata.  Pecten  eboreus. 

Tertiary  Acephala. 

Fig.  164.  Fig.  165. 


Turritella  Mortoni.  Fusus  quadricostatus. 

Tertiary  Gasteropods. 


TEKTIAKY  SYSTEM.  189 

Extensive  beds  of  this  era  are  mainly  composed  of 
small  shells,  many  of  which  are  microscopic.  They 
are  known  under  the  name  of  Foraminifera.  One 


Fig.  166. 


Nummulitic  Limestone. 

group  of  these  animals  has  been  called  Nummulites, 
from  their  resemblance  to  a  coin.  Nummulitic  rocks 
occur  in  Alabama,  and  they  abound  in  the  Alps  and 
Pyrenees,  also  in  Egypt,  and  in  the  Himalaya  Moun- 
tains. Some  of  the  pyramids  of  Egypt  are  built  of 
Nummulitic  limestone. 

ARTICULATES  are  not  abundantly  preserved, 
but  INSECTS  and  CRUSTACEANS  are  found  to  some 
extent. 

VERTEBRATES.  It  is  in  this  branch  that  the 
fauna  of  the  Tertiary  receives  its  most  marked  charac- 
teristics. In  this  system  we  find  animals  higher  in 
rank  than  are  found  in  any  of  the  previous  ones. 

FISHES  are  numerous  in  the  Tertiary.  In  the 
earlier  periods,  they  were  covered  with  a  sort  of 
enamel,  but  in  this  we  find  them  covered  with  horny 


190  TEKTIAKY   SYSTEM. 

scales  like  the  fishes  of  the  present  day.  In  the 
United  States  the  teeth  of  sharks  are  abundant  in  the 
beds  of  this  era. 

Fig.  167. 


Platax  altissimux. 
Tertiary  Fish. 


REPTILES,  which  especially  characterize  the  Oolitic 
and  Cretaceous  systems,  no  longer  stand  in  the  first 


TERTIARY   SYSTEM.  191 

rank.  Although,  numerous,  they  are  not  on  that 
gigantic  scale  exhibited  in  the  preceding  periods, 

BIRDS  are  found  in  the  Tertiary  beds  around  the 
city  of  Paris. 

MAMMALS.  In  the  Eocene  of  Clarke  county,  Ala., 
the  remains  of  a  gigantic  Cetacean  have  been  dis- 
covered. The  bones  occur  in  great  numbers. 

But  the  important  fact  to  be  here  observed  is  this 
— the  Tertiary  marks  the  introduction  of  the  true 
placental  mammals.  The  sea  and  the  estuaries,  though 
rich  in  animal  life,  no  longer  furnish  the  highest 
representatives  of  the  Animal  Kingdom ;  but,  in  this 
period,  land  animals  assume  the  first  rank,  which 
they  ever  afterwards  maintain. 

Fossil  mammals  are  numerous  in  the  Tertiary 
deposits  of  Nebraska.  Twenty  species  of  mammals 
have  been  found  in  the  Eocene  rocks  of  the  Paris  basin. 
These,  as  well  as  those  of  Nebraska,  belong  mostly 
to  the  order  of  Pachyderms.  The  careful  researches 
of  Cuvier  enabled  him  to  restore,  to  a  great  extent, 
the  fauna  of  the  earliest  days  of  the  Tertiary,  as  it 
existed  in  the  vicinity  of  the  present  city  of  Paris ; 
and  he  showed  that  it  was  composed  of  animals  not 
only  specifically  but  generically  distinct  from  any  of 
those  now  living. 

One  gigantic  mammal  of  the  Tertiary,  Middle  por- 
tion, has  been  named  Dinotherium  Its  remains  occur 
in  Bavaria,  Austria,  and  France.  This  animal  was 


192  DRIFT,    OK  BOULDER  PERIOD. 

about  18  feet  in  length,  and  particularly  remarkable 
on  account  of  two  tusks  which  turned  downwards, 
and  which  were  undoubtedly  used  in  tearing  up  the 
roots  of  aquatic  plants.  It  probably  lived  about  the 
water,  like  the  hippopotamus  of  the  present  time. 


SECTION  VIII. 
DRIFT,    OR  BOULDER  PERIOD. 

The  records  of  this  era  are  spread  out  before  us, 
over  North  America,  north  of  parallel  40°,  and  over 
all  the  northern  countries  of  Europe. 

The  Drift  consists  of  materials  derived  from  all 
the  previous  formations.  These  materials  are  in  all 
stages,  from  the  finest  sand  to  boulders  and  fragments 
of  rock  of  enormous  dimensions,  and,  in  many  cases, 
all  mixed  together  in  confusion. 

In  some  places  the  Drift  material  forms  only  a  slight 
covering  over  the  solid  rocks ;  in  some  others  it  is 
piled  up  in  ridges,  and  hills  of  great  height,  which 
may  be  found  in  all  the  northern  parts  of  our  country. 

The  boulders  which  fill  and  cover  the  soil,  and 
those  scattered  upon  the  hills  and  mountains,  belong 
to  this  formation,  and,  with  the  grooved  and  polished 


DRIFT,    OR   BOULDER   PERIOD.  193 

rocks,  to  be  noticed  hereafter,  form  its  chief  charac- 
teristics. 

By  examination,  these  boulders  are  found  to  be 
entirely  different  in  structure  and  mineral  composi- 
tion from  the  rocks  upon  which  they  rest,  and  there- 
fore are  not  in  the  places  where  they  were  formed,  but 
have  been  transported  to  their  present  position  by 
some  powerful  agency. 

Everywhere  in  North  America,  within  the  limits 
above  pointed  out,  the  loose  rocks  have  been  moved 
from  the  north  towards  the  south;  and  the  ledge 
whence  a  boulder  was  derived,  can,  in  most  cases,  be 
found  to  the  north  of  the  present  position  of  the 
boulder,  but  never  south  of  it.  In  some  cases  they 
have  been  carried  only  a  few  rods  from  the  parent 
ledge,  in  others,  many  miles. 

Long  Island,  Martha's  Vineyard,  Nantucket,  and 
other  islands  on  our  coast,  are  covered  with  boulders 
derived  from  the  ledges  of  the  continent.  Many 
parts  of  Cape  Cod,  where  there  are  no  ledges,  are 
covered  with  boulders  of  all  sizes,  and  those  widely 
different  from  one  another  in  mineral  composition. 

Boulders  of  porphyritic  iron  ore,  from  Iron  Hill, 
Cumberland,  R.  L,  are  scattered  over  all  the  regions  of 
the  state  south  of  that  locality.  This  is  a  very  marked 
case;  as  the  iron  ore  is  so  well  characterized,  that 
there  is  no  difficulty  in  identifying  the  boulders  with 

the  ore  in  place  at  Iron  Hill.     Boulders  derived  from 
17  N 


194  DKIFT,    OK  BOULDER  PEKIOD. 

the  country  north  of  the  Great  Lakes  are  scattered 
over  the  Western  States. 

In  numerous  instances  the  rocks  from  one  range 
of  hills  or  mountains,  have  been  carried  across  deep 
valleys,  and  scattered  upon  opposite  mountains,  and 
the  country  beyond.  On  Hoosac  Mountain,  Mass., 
there  is  a  boulder  one  thousand  feet  above  the  valley 
across  which  it  has  been  transported. 

It  is  common  to  find  boulders  having  the  outside 
covered  with  grooves,  parallel  to  one  another.  The 
writer  has  noticed  many  perfect  examples  of  this  kind 
in  Lancaster,  Mass.  These  grooves  have  undoubtedly 
resulted  from  the  grating  of  the  boulders  over  ledges, 
while  the  former  were  fixed  in  the  ice,  which,  as  will 
be  shown  hereafter,  was  concerned  in  their  transport. 
Boulders  are  often  found  so  nicely  poised  on  other 

Fig.  168. 


Rocking  Stone,  South  Acworth,  N.  II. 

rocks,  and  on  the  mountain  sides,  or  summits,  that  they 
may  be  moved  with  the  hand,  though  it  would  require 


DKIFT,    OR  BOULDER  PERIOD.  195 

immense  power  to  dislodge  them.  These  are  called 
Rocking  Stones. 

Throughout  the  regions  already  pointed  out  as 
occupied  by  the  Drift  materials,  the  rocks  in  place  are 
more  or  less  polished,  striated,  or  grooved.  These 
marks  are  found  on  all  the  consolidated  formations 
that  appear  at  the  surface,  and  they  constitute  an 
essential  part  of  the  records  of  the  Drift  period. 

Wherever  the  rocks  have  not  suffered  decomposi- 
tion or  disintegration,  these  markings  are  conspicuous 
in  the  valleys,  on  the  hills,  and  on  the  mountains. 
The  grooves  are  generally  a  fraction  of  an  inch  in 
depth,  and  from  a  quarter  of  an  inch  to  three  or  four 
inches  in  width.  Rarely,  the  grooves  or  furrows 
occur  a  foot  or  more  wide,  and  several  inches  deep. 
Again,  the  markings  are  so  finely  cut  as  to  be  scarcely 
visible ;  and  sometimes,  as  on  quartz  and  other  hard 
rocks,  a  lens  reveals  the  most  definitely-cut  striae 
where  none  were  to  be  seen  with  the  naked  eye. 
Sometimes  the  rocks  are  completely  polished.  There 
is  every  grade  of  these  phenomena  to  be  seen  in  the 
Drift  regions,  and  not  unfrequently  all  the  varieties 
mentioned  above  are  found  at  one  locality. 

The  general  direction  of  the  striae,  or  grooves,  is 
the  same  as  that  in  which  the  boulders  have  been 
transported ;  that  is,  from  north  to  south,  varying 
from  a  few  degrees  west  of  north,  and  east  of  south,  to 
a  few  degrees  east  of  north,  and  west  of  south. 


196  DRIFT,    OR  BOULDER   PERIOD. 

The  markings  are  more  numerous  on  the  northern 
flanks  of  the  mountains  than  on  the  southern ;  and 
the  northern  portions  of  mountains  everywhere  in  the 
Drift  regions  of  North  America,  are  rounded,  while 
the  southern  portions  are  more  angular. 

These  facts,  as  well  as  those  before  noticed,  show 
that  the  agency  which  transported  the  boulders  and 
other  drift  material,  and  which  furrowed,  rounded, 
and  polished  the  rocks,  operated  from  the  north 
towards  the  south. 

As  these  phenomena  of  the  grooved  and  polished 
rocks  may  be  seen  everywhere  within  the  regions 
named  above,  we  need  point  out  only  a  few  cases. 

There  are  good  examples  near  the  city  of  Portland, 
Me.,  especially  on  the  rocks  near  the  sea-side,  where 
the  striaB  are  distinctly  cut,  running  parallel  and  for 
great  distances,  and  disappearing  beneath  the  sea. 
The  writer  has  also  noticed  fine  examples  throughout 
almost  the  entire  width  of  the  same  state. 

The  mica  slate,  gneissoid,  and  other  hard  rocks, 
everywhere  furnish  good  examples.  Fig.  169  repre- 
sents a  fragment  of  striated  and  polished  quartz 
from  Williams  Hill,  the  celebrated  beryl  locality  in 
Acworth,  N.  H.  The  whole  top  of  the  hill  is  rounded 
and  smoothed — a  result  of  the  Drift  action.  The 
White  Mountain  range,  in  all  favorable  places, 
exhibits  scratched  and  furrowed  rocks.  Mt.  Chocorua 


DRIFT,    OR   BOULDER   PERIOD. 


197 


is  furrowed  from  the  base  to  the  summit,  and  in  many 
instances  the  grooves  are  very  deep. 

Fig.  169. 


Fragment  of  Striated  Quartz,  Williams  Hill,  Acworth,  N.  II. 

Fig.  170  represents  a  polished  and  finely  striated 
fragment  of  quartz,  broken  from  a  vein  of  that 
material  on  the  summit  of  Mt.  Clinton,  one  of  the 
White  Mountains.  The  portion  left  white  in  the 
figure,  is  higher  than  the  other  parts  of  the  speci- 
men, and  is  polished  as  smooth  as  a  pane  of  window- 
glass. 

This  smooth  quartz  shows  that  the  ice  which  passed 
over  this  point,  and  thus  polished  it,  rested  imme- 
17* 


198 


DKIFT;    OK   BOULDER   PERIOD. 


diately  upon  it,  with  only  sand,  ground  as  fine  as  dust, 
between. 


Fig.  170. 


Polished  Quartz,  Mt.  Clinton,  N.  II. 

The  writer  thinks  he  has  detected  distinct  grooves 
on  Mt.  Washington,  some  distance  above  the  Lake  of 
the  Clouds.  These  grooves  are  near  the  bridle  path 
which  is  followed  in  ascending  this  mountain  from  the 
"Notch,"  and  probably  are  at  the  highest  point  east 
of  the  Eocky  Mountains,  where  evidences  of  the  Drift 
period  have  been  observed.  It  is  probable  that  the 
Drift  agency  did  not  extend  to  the  summit  of  Mt. 
Washington,  as  that  is  at  present  covered  with  angular 
fragments  and  blocks  of  the  peculiar  mica  slate  of 


DRIFT,    OR   BOULDER   PERIOD.  199 

which  that  mountain  is  mainly  composed.  Had  this 
agency  swept  over  the  summit,  it  is  believed  we 
should  find  evidences  of  the  fact  in  grooves,  and  in 
the  absence  of  angular  blocks,  which  are  now  so 
abundant.  But  we  must  not  forget  that  time  enough 
has  elapsed,  since  the  period  of  the  Drift,  to  allow  the 
frost  to  break  up  the  summit  into  fragments,  so  as  to 
give  it  the  present  appearance,  though  it  may  have 
been  swept  over  in  the  same  manner  as  other  parts  of 
the  Drift  region. 

The  rocks  of  Massachusetts  are  covered  with  well- 
defined  strios.  Professor  Hitchcock,  who  has  studied 
this  subject  very  extensively,  has  pointed  out,  and 
mapped  out,  the  grooves  and  their  directions  through- 
out the  entire  state. 

A  perfect  example  of  polished  and  grooved  rocks, 
may  be  seen  a  few  rods  from  the  Kailroad  Station  in 
Greenfield,  Mass.  The  rocks  on  the  coast  of  this  state 
are  covered  with  striae.  Visitors  to  Nahant  can  see 
beautiful  examples  near  the  summer  residence  of 
Agassiz. 

The  lamented  and  learned  naturalist,  Professor  C. 
B.  Adams,  observed  more  than  three  hundred  distinct 
cases  in  Yermont.  He  mentions  the  Valley  of 
"Winooski,  as  especially  interesting  on  account  of  its 
numerous  polished  and  grooved  rocks ;  some  of  them 
exhibiting  furrows  three  or  four  inches  deep,  and 
twelve  to  thirty  inches  wide. 


200  DRIFT,    OR   BOULDER   PERIOD. 

At  Rochester,  New  York,  the  limestone,  over  a 
wide  area,  is  polished  and  striated  in  the  most  perfect 
manner. 

I  have  specified  only  a  few  localities.  Want  of 
room  forbids  me  to  mention  more.  The  student  must 
not  regard  these  as  the  most  interesting,  or  important. 
Undoubtedly  there  are  hundreds,  and  probably  thou- 
sands, of  cases  in  every  state  occupied  by  the  Drift,  as 
interesting,  and  as  prominently  marked  as  those 
pointed  out  above. 

The  remark  made  in  the  outset  is  perfectly  true, 
that  these  markings,  and  other  Drift  phenomena,  are 
found  in  every  part  of  the  northern  portion  of  our 
country,  at  all  levels,  to  the  height  of  5000  or  6000 
feet  above  the  sea. 

An  explanation  of  the  Drift  phenomena  is  not  an 
easy  task,  and  probably  will  not  be  fully  accomplished, 
until  there  shall  be  a  more  complete  survey  of  all  the 
facts  which  are  within  our  reach.  Some  points,  how- 
ever, are  well  settled.  The  straight  and  parallel  striae, 
or  furrows  on  the  rocks,  could  not  have  been  produced 
by  mere  currents  of  water,  which  are  deflected  from 
their  course  by  every  obstacle ;  while  these  markings 
show  that  the  agency  moved  equally  well  over  all 
kinds  of  surface,  ploughing  through,  and  grinding 
down  whatever  impeded  its  progress,  and  turned  aside 
only  by  the  most  formidable  obstruction,  such  as  a 
lofty  mountain. 


DRIFT,  OB   BOULDER  PERIOD.  201 

Mere  currents  of  water  never  could  have  lifted 
boulders  from  lower  to  higher  levels,  or  transported 
them  from  one  range  of  mountains,  across  deep  valleys, 
to  another  range,  and  to  the  country  beyond. 

Ice  must  have  been  concerned  in  producing  these 
phenomena.  It  has  moved  over  the  whole  Drift 
region,  either  in  the  form  of  Glaciers,  or  Icebergs,  and 
perhaps  both  and  with  rocks  and  pebbles  frozen  into 
the  lower  surface,  has  acted  like  a  huge  rasp  to  wear 
away,  furrow,  and  polish  the  hardest  rocks,  and,  at  the 
same  time,  to  bear  forward  boulders,  fragments  of 
rock,  and  other  material,  and  leave  them  far  from 
their  original  places. 

Further  evidence  that  the  Drift  phenomena  were 
produced  by  Icebergs,  Glaciers,  or  both,  will  be  intro- 
duced in  a  subsequent  chapter,  where  geological 
changes  will  be  noticed  at  some  length. 


202  ALLUVIUM. 


SECTION  IX. 
ALLUVIUM. 

Under  this  head  we  may  include  all  the  accumula- 
tions newer  than  the  Drift,  described  in  the  last  section. 
Alluvium  and  Drift  so  blend  that  it  is  almost  impos- 
sible to  draw  a  line  of  distinction  between  them ;  and 
Professor  Hitchcock,  and  some  other  eminent  geolo- 
gists, comprise  under  Alluvium  all  accumulations 
newer  than  the  Tertiary,  considering  Drift  only  as  the 
first  part  of  one  great  geological  system ;  and  it  will 
be  recollected  that  the  two  are  grouped  together  in 
our  table  showing  the  classification  of  rocks. 

There  is,  however,  one  general  distinction  which 
may  be  made  between  Drift  proper  and  Alluvium, 
according  to  our  limitation ; — Drift  is  not  stratified ; 
th'e  sand,  gravel,  and  boulders,  are  all  piled  together 
in  confusion,  while  accumulations  newer  than  the  Drift 
are  stratified,  or  exhibit  more  or  less  of  a  sorting  of 
the  materials. 

Under  Alluvium  we  include,  then,  ancient  sea 
beaches,  rounded  hills  of  pebbles,  lake  and  river 
terraces,  deltas,  deposits  of  sands  and  clays ;  also, 
accumulations  of  marls,  peat,  calcareous  tufa,  bog  iron 


ALLUVIUM.  203 

ore,  &c.; — embracing  all  the  progressive  accumula- 
tions. 

At  the  close  of  the  Drift  Period  proper;  or  the 
period  described  in  the  last  section,  the  Drift  regions 
were  covered  with  a  mass  of  sand,  gravel,  rounded 
and  angular  boulders  confusedly  mixed  together — the 
result  of  the  Drift  operations.  These  materials  have 
been  more  or  less  worked  over  and  modified  by  the 
ocean,  lakes,  and  rivers,  giving  rise  to  the  varied 
forms  of  Alluvium  enumerated  above, — excepting 
only  the  peat,  marls,  tufa,  &c.,  which  are  formed  by 
processes  to  be  explained  hereafter. 

Professor  Hitchcock,  whose  researches  in  the  Surface 
Geology  of  this  country  have  probably  been  more 
extensive  than  those  of  any  other  man,  and  whose 
interesting  published  results  may  be  found  in  the  9th 
volume  of  the  "  Smithsonian  Contributions  to  Know- 
ledge," finds  ancient  sea  beaches  in  many  parts  of 
New  England,  and  at  all  levels  to  the  height  of  2000 
or  3000  feet. 

The  rounded  hills  of  pebbles  that  border  many  of 
our  mountains  are  but  drift  material  worked  over  by 
the  waves  of  an  ancient  sea.  Such  modified  materials, 
and  in  fact  all  the  altered  Drift,  are  called  Modified 
Drift. 

All  are  familiar  with  the  fact  that  along  our  rivers 
there  are  generally  several  terraces,  one  above  the 
other,  each  higher  one  being  farther  back  from  the 


204 


ALLUVIUM. 
Fig.  171. 


Hills  of  Modified  Drift. 


river  than  the  one  below  it.  Sometimes  these  terraces 
appear  on  both  sides  of  the  stream,  and  sometimes  only 
on  one  side.  The  number  varies  from  two  or  three 
to  ten.  The  highest  or  first-formed,  is  often  at  a  great 
height  above  the  present  channel ;  but  at  whatever 
height  we  find  the  terrace,  we  may  be  sure  that  it  was 
once  the  bank  of  the  river. 

These  terraces  are  the  result  of  the  natural  drainage 
of  the  continents.  At  the  last  emergence  of  the  lands 
from  the  ocean,  the  rivers  all  ran  over  the  surface  of 
the  loose  material  through  which  they  have  ever  since 
been  cutting  down  their  channels,  and  leaving  terrace 
after  terrace,  as  evidences  of  their  operations. 

Fine  examples  of  river  terraces  may  be  seen  in 
nearly  all  parts  of  the  United  States,  and  especially 
along  the  rivers  of  New  England.  In  many  cases 
they  may  readily  be  traced  as  one  rides  in  the  rail-car. 
This  is  especially  true  of  those  along  the  Merrimac 


ALLUVIUM. 


205 


river,  which   are   very  conspicuous   between  Lowell 
and  Concord. 

But  the  localities  where  good  terraces  may  be  seen 
are  so  numerous  that  it  is  not  necessary  to  point  out 
particular  cases.  Fig.  172,  reduced  from  Professor 
Hitchcock's  paper  in  the  Smithsonian  Contributions, 
gives  a  good  idea  of  the  form  and  position  of  river 
terraces. 

Fig.  172. 


Section  across  Dcerfield  Meadows,  Deerfield,  Mass. 

The  deltas,  marls,  peat,  &c.,  of  this  period  will  be 
sufficiently  noticed  in  a  subsequent  chapter,  and  there- 
fore need  not  be  spoken  of  here. 

In  the  clay  deposits  of  this  era  it  is  common  to  find 
nodules,  or  concretions  of  argillaceous  matter,  called 
Clay-stones.  They  are  probably  formed  by  the  affinity 
that  particles  have  for  one  another.  Not  unfrequently 
the  nucleus  is  a  scale  of  a  fish,  or  a  shell,  or  some 
other  organic  substance. 

Clay-stones  occur  of  almost  every  variety  of  form, 
sometimes  taking  shapes  which,  with  the  aid  of  a  little 
imagination,  appear  to  be  those  of  familiar  animals, 
18 


206 


ALLUVIUM. 


as  a  cat,  dog,  hare,  butterfly,  &c.  Professor  Hitchcock 
has  figured  one  in  his  Elementary  Geology,  which 
bears  a  striking  resemblance  to  the  human  head.  The 
accompanying  figures  are  exact  representations  of  two 
specimens  from  East  Windsor,  Conn.,  presented  to  the 
writer  by  Kev.  E.  H.  Pratt. 

Fig.  173. 


Fig.  174. 


Clay-stones,  East  Windsor,  Conn. 


In  the  Drift  proper  there  are  few  or  no  fossils,  but 
in  the  deposits  newer  than  the  Drift  they  are  very 


ALLUVIUM.  207 

abundant  and  full  of  interest.     The  BIRDS  and  MAM- 
MALS of  this  era  especially  claim  our  attention. 

In  New  Zealand,  bones  of  a  bird,  called  Dinornis, 
have  been  found  which  exceed  in  bulk  those  of  the 
largest  horse.  The  thigh  bone  of  this  bird  is  sixteen 
inches  in  length,  and  nine  inches  in  circumference 
in  the  middle  part ;  and  the  upper  part  of  the  tibia 
measures  twenty-one  inches  in  circumference.  This 
bird,  when  alive,  was  eleven  or  twelve  feet  high ;  as 
tall  as  the  largest  elephant.  These  bones  are  now  in 
the  Museum  of  the  College  of  Surgeons,  London. 

In  Siberia  the  unconsolidated  deposits  so  abound 
with  elephant's  tusks,  that  for  years  the  ivory  secured 
there,  has  constituted  a  regular  article  of  commerce. 
This  fact  shows  us  that  Siberia  was  once  a  land  of 
elephants. 

Near  the  close  of  the  last  century,  an  elephant  was 
found  on  the  northern  coast  of  Siberia,  imbedded  in 
the  ice.  It  was  in  such  a  perfect  state  of  preservation, 
that  the  people  of  the  vicinity  fed  their  dogs  upon  its 
flesh.  This  animal  was  covered  with  hair  between 
one  and  two  inches  long,  and  was  evidently  adapted 
to  live  in  a  cool  climate.  How  this  elephant  became 
imbedded  there,  in  so  perfect  a  state  of  preservation, 
is,  perhaps,  a  question  yet  to  be  solved. 

In  Great  Britain,  and  other  parts  of  Europe,  the 
caves  and  the  superficial  deposits  contain  remains  of 
forms  that  are  no  longer  represented  in  that  quarter 


208  ALLUVIUM. 

of  the  globe.  These  remains  show  us  that  Great 
Britain  was  once  inhabited  by  at  least  two  species  of 
elephant,  two  species  of  rhinoceros,  the  hippopotamus, 
tiger,  three  species  of  bears,  hyenas,  and  a  gigantic 
elk,  all  of  which  have  passed  away. 

The  great  Irish  Elk  was  found  in  the  shell  marl 
below  the  peat,  and  is  ten  feet  high  to  the  top  of  its 
horns,  whose  tips  are  ten  feet  apart.  Our  American 
Elk  appears  small  beside  this  gigantic  Euminant  of 
other  days.  The  skeleton  of  this  animal  is  in  the 
Museum  of  the  College  of  Surgeons,  mentioned  above. 

But  in  no  country  are  the  remains  of  this  era  more 
interesting  than  in  the  United  States ,  where,  besides 
the  remains  of  a  great  number  of  smaller  Mammals, 
we  find  those  of  the  Mylodon,  Megatherium,  and 
Mastodon,  huge  animals  that  no  longer  live  on  the 
globe.  And  the  researches  of  Professor  Holmes,  in 
the  superficial  deposits  of  South  Carolina,  whence 
he  is  revealing  wonders,  have  brought  to  light  the 
remains  of  an  extinct  horse.  It  is  highly  probable 
that  this  noble  animal  was  indigenous  to  this  country, 
and  became  extinct  before  the  arrival  of  the  white 
man.  Our  present  horses  are  descendants  of  those 
introduced  from  abroad. 

The  Megatherium  was  at  least  twelve  feet  long,  and 
eight  feet  high.  Its  thigh  bone  is  three  times  as  thick 
as  that  of  the  elephant,  and  the  spinal  cavity  indicates 
a  spinal  cord  a  foot  in  diameter  f  The  remains  of 


ALLUVIUM.  209 

this  animal  have  been  found  in  South  Carolina  and 
Georgia;  also  abundantly  in  South  America. 


Fie.  175. 


Skeleton  of  the  Megatherium. 

The  remains  of  the  Mastodon  have  been  found  in 
great  abundance  in  the  United  States,  occurring 
almost  everywhere  west  of  the  Connecticut  river. 
This  animal  resembles  the  elephant,  but  is  entirely 
distinct  from  the  latter.  Merely  a  tooth  is  enough  to 
distinguish  these  animals  from  one  another,  as  the 
grinding  surface  of  the  tooth  of  the  Mastodon  is  com- 
posed of  conical  projections,  and  that  of  the  elephant 
is  flat,  as  may  be  seen  by  the  figures  on  the  next 
page. 

The  most  perfect  skeleton  of  the  Mastodon  in  the 
United  States,  is  now  in  the  private  Museum  of  the 

late  Dr.  John  C.  Warren  of  Boston,  who  published  a 
18*  0 


210 


ALLUVIUM. 


Fig   176. 


Fig.  177. 


Molar  of  the  Mastodon— side  view.  Molar  of  the  Elephant— grinding  surface 

inclined  towards  the  observer. 

large  volume  wholly  devoted  to  a  description  of  this 
ancient  Pachyderm  of  our  country. 

Fig.  178.    - 


Skeleton  of  the  Mastodon. 


This   skeleton   was   discovered   in   1845,   in  marl 


ALLUVIUM.  211 

below  a  peat  bog,  in  Newburgh,  N.  Y.,  70  miles  from 
New  York  city.  The  height  of  the  skeleton  is  11 
feet.  The  length  from  the  anterior  extremity  of 
the  face  to  the  beginning  of  the  tail  17  feet,  and  the 
length  of  the  tail  6  feet.  The  tusks  are  each  10  feet 
11  inches  long. 

Such  was  one  of  the  animals  once  common  in  a 
large  part  of  the  United  States. 

Neither  the  remains  of  man,  nor  any  of  his  works, 
have  been  found  in  any  formation  below  Alluvium, 
nor  are  they  found  in  the  lowest  portions  of  this. 
Geology,  as  well  as  Revelation,  thus  shows  that  of 
all  the  Animal  Kingdom,  Man  was  the  last  to  make 
his  appearance  upon  the  earth. 

I  have  thus  endeavored  to  present  the  leading  facts 
revealed  by  the  study  of  each  geological  system.  It 
is  now  important  that  the  student  be  able  to  survey 
the  ground  over  which  he  has  passed,  and  to  retain 
in  memory  the  results  which  he  has  reached ;  there- 
fore the  following  Tables,  showing  the  Geological 
Periods  when  the  different  Branches  and  Classes  of 
the  Vegetable  and  of  the  Animal  Kingdom  appeared 
upon  the  earth,  will  be  of  service  to  the  beginner  in 
geological  science. 

These  tables  represent  the  several  periods  in  their 
chronological  order,  the  lowest  being  oldest.  The 


212 


ALLUVIUM. 


first  Table  relates  to  the  introduction  of  Plants,  and 
the  second  to  that  of  Animals. 

The  dotted  lines  show  when  each  Branch  or  Class 
was  introduced,  and  the  periods  through  which  the 
same  lived. 


VEGETABLE   KINGDOM. 


Alluvium  and  Drift  .     .     . 

,2  % 

3% 

H   ft 

Acrogens. 

• 

§s 
M 

0  p, 

Monocotyle- 
dons. 

0 

£§ 
II 

Tertiary 

Cretaceous       

Oolitic    .     . 

New  Red  Sandstone       .     . 

Carboniferous       .... 

Old  Red  Sandstone  .     .    t 

Silurian 

1 

No  separate  column  is  made  for  Anophytes,  which 
are  here  included  with  the  two  lowest  groups. 


ALLUVIUM. 


213 


Thallophytes  were  introduced  at  the  beginning  of 
the  Silurian ;  Acrogens  later  in  the  same  period ; 
Gymnosperms  during  the  Old  Eed  Sandstone ;  Mono- 
cotyledons in  the  Carboniferous ;  and  true  Dicotyle- 
dons at  the  beginning  of  the  Cretaceous. 


ANIMAL   KINGDOM. 


Alluvium  and  1 
Drift                 / 

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Mammals. 
-  -  Man. 

Tertiary  .     .     . 

Cretaceous    .     . 

Oolitic      .     .     . 

i 

New  Red  Sand. 

Carboniferous    . 

— 

— 

Old  Red  Sand.  . 

Silurian   .     .     . 

214  ALLUVIUM. 

It  may  be  doubtful  whether  Eeptiles  and  Birds 
appear  quite  as  early  as  here  indicated. 

The  student  will  please  bear  in  mind  that  although 
each  Class  lived  through  all  the  periods  after  its  intro- 
duction, it  is  represented  in  the  successive  periods  by 
new  Species,  often  by  new  Genera,  and  in  many  cases 
by  new  Orders. 

By  way  of  recapitulation,  we  may  add,  that  the 
Paleozoic  Period  is  especially  characterized  by  its 
beautiful  Crinoids,  numerous  and  unique  Brachio- 
pods,  its  Orthoceratites,  Trilobites,  and  Fishes;  the 
Secondary,  by  its  Ammonites,  Belemnites,  Nautili, 
and  enormous  and  strange-formed  Eeptiles ;  the  Ter- 
tiary and  Modern,  by  numerous  Bivalves,  and  Graste- 
ropods,  and  gigantic  Mammals. 

In  concluding  this  chapter,  we  may  add,  that  the 
geological  systems  afford  data  by  which  the  relative 
ages  of  mountain  ranges  and  continents  may  be  de- 
termined. 

If  Silurian  strata  form  the  flanks  of  a  mountain 
chain,  we  know  that  these  mountains  were  uplifted 
after  the  formation  of  the  Silurian  rocks,  else  these 
rocks  would  not  have  been  upheaved. 

If  Tertiary  rocks  constitute  the  flanks,  then  the 
mountains  were  uplifted  after  the  Tertiary  period. 

If  Silurian  beds  flank  a  mountain  range,  and  undis- 
turbed Tertiary  strata  occur  in  connection  with  these 


ALLUVIUM.  215 

beds,  we  know  that  the  range  of  mountains  was  up- 
lifted after  the  Silurian,  but  before  the  Tertiary; 
for  had  the  Tertiary  beds  been  formed  before  the 
upheaval,  they  too  would  have  been  uplifted. 

By  the  application  of  such  principles,  geologists 
have  found  out,  that  not  only  the  continents,  but  dif- 
ferent parts  of  the  same  continent,  differ  greatly  in 


Geologically  considered,  America  is  the  Old  "World. 
A  large  part  of  North  America  was  dry  land,  while 
yet  a  large  portion  of  Europe  formed  the  bottom  of 
the  ocean. 

Geologists  have  also  found  out  that  the  highest 
mountains  of  every  country  are  the  newest  or  last 
elevated.  The  Alps  are  younger  than  the  mountains 
of  Scandinavia ;  the  Rocky  Mountains  younger  than 
the  Alleghanies,  and  the  latter  younger  than  the  White 
Hills  of  New  Hampshire. 


CHAPTEK  IX. 

THE   GEOLOGICAL   CHANGES   NOW  GOING    ON,  AND   THE 
AGENCIES  BY  WHICH  THEY  ARE  PRODUCED. 

,  IN  our  previous  investigations,  we  have  learned 
that  the  earth  has  undergone  great  changes ;  and  if 
we  look  at  the  earth  now,  we  find  nothing  stationary. 
Probably  our  planet  does  not  present  a  single  feature 
that  it  possessed  when  spoken  into  existence  by  its 
Great  Author. 

"We  are  accustomed  to  look  upon  the  continents, 
the  mountains,  and  the  hills  as  fixed ;  the  courses  of 
rivers,  the  barriers  of  lakes,  seas,  and  oceans,  as  per- 
manent; but  all  these  are  modified  every  century, 
every  year,  and  every  hour. 

The  agencies  that  are  producing  geological  changes, 
are  mainly  Chemical,  Aqueous,  Igneous,  and  Organic. 

Besides  these"  agencies,  the  winds  also  produce 
great  changes  in  many  parts  of  the  world,  by  drifting 
the  sands. 

On  account  of  the  affinity  one  element  has  for 
another,  bodies  are  constantly  decomposing,  and  their 
elements  enter  into  new  relations,  and  appear  in  new 

(216) 


AQUEOUS   AGENCIES.  217 

forms.  Chemical  agencies  are  slow  in  their  operations ; 
but  their  results  are  great.  The  operations  of  the 
other  three  classes  of  agencies  are  more  open  to  view, 
and  will  be  spoken  of  somewhat  at  length,  in  the 
three  following  sections. 


SECTION  I. 

AQUEOUS  AGENCIES. 

Aqueous  agencies  operate  in  the  form  of  Rains, 
Frost,  Springs,  Kivers,  Waves,  Currents,  Glaciers,  and 
Icebergs. 

RAINS  are  both  chemical  and  mechanical  in  their 
operations.  In  falling  through  the  atmosphere,  water 
absorbs  more  or  less  of  carbonic  acid,  by  the  aid  of 
which  it  decomposes  all  rocks  containing  lime,  and 
causes  many  other  chemical  changes,  by  bringing  in 
contact  substances  of  different  kinds.  There  is  no 
shower  that  does  not  wash  some  of  the  loose  material 
from  the  hills  and  mountains,  into  the  valleys. 

FKOST  is  a  powerful  modifying  agent.  Water  finds 
its  way  into  the  fissures  of  the  rocks,  where  it  freezes, 
and  rends  the  rocks  asunder,  and  the  sides  of  the 
mountains  are  covered  with  fragments  of  all  sizes 

19 


218  AQUEOUS  AGENCIES. 

thus  produced.  Immense  boulders  are  often  rent  by 
frost,  and  cause  much  curious  speculation  by  those 
ignorant  of  this  fact. 

SPRINGS  produce  changes  by  depositing  substances 
which  they  hold  in  solution,  such  as  lime,  and  iron ; 
thus  forming  beds  of  calcareous  tufa,  and  bog  iron  ore. 

EIVEKS  cut  channels  in  the  superficial  accumula- 
tions, and  through  the  solid  rocks,  and  transport  loose 
material  into  the  water  basins. 

Kivers  have  excavated  deep  channels  in  the  rocks 
in  every  part  of  our  country,  giving  rise  to  varied 
and  beautiful  scenery.  These  excavations  afford  the 
geologist  an  opportunity  of  studying  the  strata,  and 
their  contents,  to  the  best  advantage. 

At  Trenton  Falls,  N.  Y.,  Canada  Creek  has  cut  its 
way  in  the  Trenton  limestone  to  a  depth  of  100  to  200 
feet,  revealing  the  strata  that  accumulated  on  the 
bottom  of  an  ancient  ocean,  and  which  are  now  filled 
with  the  remains  of  life. 

This  is  one  of  the  most  interesting  places  which 
the  tourist  and  geologist  can  visit  in  our  country. 
The  deep  ravines,  the  numerous  waterfalls  and  cas- 
cades, the  perfectly  defined  strata  filled  with  trilobites 
and  other  fossils,  richly  reward  the  visitor. 

The  Genesee  river,  1ST.  Y.,  has  cut  a  channel  in  some 
parts  of  its  course,  300  feet  deep,  the  depth  varying 
with  the  nature  of  the  rocks.  This  river  shows  well 
how  the  different  kinds  of  strata  cause  a  series  of  falls. 


AQUEOUS  AGENCIES.  219 

The  hardest  rock  is  at  the  fall  marked  1,  the  next 
in  hardness  at  the  one  marked  2,  and  the  softest  at  3. 

Fig.  179. 


Section  on  Genesec  River  from  the  upper  to  the  lower  fall  at  Rochester. 


Niagara  river  has  cut  a  channel  through  the  solid 
rocks,  200  feet  deep,  1200  to  2000  feet  wide,  and 
7  miles  long.  The  evidence  is  conclusive  that  the 
Falls  were  formerly  at  Queenstown,  seven  miles  below 
their  present  situation. 

The  high  bluff  at  Queenstown,  and  the  sides  of  the 
deep  chasm,  afford  a  fine  exhibition  of  the  different 
kinds  of  rocks  in  this  region,  and  enable  us  to  under- 
stand the  present  operations  at  the  Falls,  and  the 
prospective  results  of  these  operations. 

The  lower  rock  is  a  soft  shale,  which  rapidly  wastes 
by  the  action  of  the  water,  while  the  overlying  rock 
is  a  compact  limestone.  The  result  of  this  arrange- 
ment is,  that  the  lower  rock  wears  away,  leaving  the 
vast  thickness  of  limestone  overhanging,  which  is 
soon  broken  down  by  the  600,000  tons  of  water  which 
pass  over  it  each  minute. 

The  "Table  Kock,"  parts  of  which  have  fallen 
within  a  few  years,  is  the  upper  limestone,  and  the 


220  AQUEOUS   AGENCIES. 

cause  of  its  falling  is  the  destruction  of  the  shales 
beneath,  as  before  remarked 

The  opinion  was  formerly  popular  that  the  Falls 
would  ultimately  recede  to  Lake  Erie,  when  that  lake 
would  be  suddenly  drained,  and  inundate  the  whole 
country  below.  But  the  dip  of  the  rocks  soon  carries 
the  shales  so  far  below  the  bed  of  the  river,  that  they 
will  cease  to  be  acted  upon,  while  the  hard  limestone 
will  occupy  the  whole  height  of  the  Falls.  Then  the 
rock  being  throughout  of  the  same  hardness,  the 
abrupt  fall  will  disappear,  and  a  gradual  descent  take 
its  place.  So  that,  in  process  of  time,  there  will  be  a 
gentle  slope  from  Lake  Erie  to  Ontario ;  and  though 
the  former  be  drained,  it  will  be  done  gradually. 

For  the  last  fifty  years,  the  Falls  of  Niagara  have 
attracted  the  attention  of  the  lover  of  sublime  scenery, 
and  the  man  of  science.  While  both  have  feasted 
their  souls  on  the  grandeur  and  sublimity  there  exhi- 
bited, and  which  no  pen  or  pencil  can  shadow  forth, 
the  latter  especially  has  looked  upon  Niagara  as  one 
of  nature's  grand  chronometers,  registering  the  ages 
as  they  pass. 

The  rate  at  which  the  Falls  recede  cannot  be  defi- 
nitely stated,  but  from  the  most  reliable  data  that  can 
be  obtained,  it  has  been  shown  that  they  have  not 
receded  more  than  one  foot  a  year  for  the  last  half 
century.  If  this  has  been  the  rate  of  retrocession  for 
the  whole  distance, — and  on  account  of  the  nature  of 


AQUEOUS   AGENCIES.  221 

the  rocks  there  is  no  reason  for  supposing  it  greater, — 
it  has  required  36,000  years  for  that  great  excavation. 
And  that  this  work  did  not  begin  till  after  the  Drift 
period,  is  proved  by  the  remains  of  the  Drift  material 
which  constituted  the  banks  of  the  river  before  it 
began  to  operate  on  the  solid  rocks  beneath. 

Examples  of  river  action  are  common  where  no 
river  now  exists.  There  is  one  case  which  the  writer 
has  recently  examined  with  some  care,  and  may  be 
mentioned  in  this  connection.  In  Bedford,  Hillsboro' 
county,  1ST.  II.,  there  are  extensive  excavations  in  the 
mica  slate,  where  now,  except  in  freshets,  there  is  only 
a  rill.  At  one  place  the  channel,  which  has  been  cut 
in  the  solid  rock,  is  70  or  80  feet  deep,  and  from  20 
to  30  wide.  The  sides  are  water  worn,  and  one  side, 
by  its  numerous  broad  grooves,  shows  very  plainly 
the  varying  direction  of  the  main  force  of  the  current 
in  the  successive  steps  of  the  process  of  excavation. 
At  the  head  of  the  channel  there  is  a  large  pool  of 
water.  In  other  parts  the  bottom  is  filled  with 
rubbish  through  which,  in  one  place,  a  pole  maybe 
passed  down  20  or  30  feet.  The  cut  on  the  next 
page,  drawn  from  a  sketch  macTe  on  the  spot  by 
Professor  Kriisi,  gives  a  good  idea  of  this  place,  which 
is  one  peculiarly  interesting,  and  is  much  visited. 
It  is  known  in  the  neighborhood  as  the  "Devil's 
Pulpit."  And  here  I  wish  to  protest  against  the 

habit  of  dedicating  to  His  Satanic  Majesty  some  of 
19* 


222 


AQUEOUS   AGENCIES. 


the  most  interesting  places  in  every  region;  and 
would  suggest  that  this  locality  be  hereafter  called 
the  Bedford  Ravine. 

Fig.  180. 


Upper  extremity  of  Bedford  Ravine,  Bedford,  N.  H. 


A  place  called  "  Purgatory,"  in  or  near  Mt.  Vernon, 
N.  Hv  presents  us  with  results  scarcely  less  interest- 
ing than  those  of  the  "  Bedford  Kavine;"  and  they 
show  that  ages  must  have  elapsed  since  the  pro- 
cess of  excavation  began,  and  that  a  much  larger 
stream  than  the  present,  once  flowed  through  that 
channel. 


AQUEOUS   AGENCIES. 


223 


Old  river  channels  of  great  depth  are  found  in  the 
western  and  south-western  parts  of  North  America. 

Deep  wells  or  "Pot-holes"  are  everywhere  common 
along  rapid  brooks  and  rivers.  Fine  examples  may 
be  seen  at  Bellows  Falls  on  the  Connecticut,  and  at 
Amoskeag  Falls  on  the  Merrimac.  Undoubtedly 
there  are  hundreds  of  places  in  our  country  that 
exhibit  examples  just  as  interesting. 

Fig.  181. 


The  "  Basin,"  Franconia  Notch. 


The  celebrated  "  Basin"  at  Franconia  Notch  is  one 


224  AQUEOUS   AGENCIES. 

of  these  wells,  40  feet  in  diameter,  and  28  feet  deep. 
It  is  filled  to  the  deptli  of  8  or  10  feet  with  pure 
water,  which  revolves  with  such  a  force  that  it  is  con- 
sidered a  dangerous  place  for  even  an  expert  swimmer. 
No  one  can  doubt  for  a  moment  that  the  entire  basin 
has  been  made  by  the  same  process  which  is  now 
going  on  there.  How  long  the  waters  of  the  Pemige- 
wasset  have  been  revolving  in  this  basin  we  may 
never  know,  but  undoubtedly  for  ages. 

But  these  pot-holes  are  abundant  far  above,  and  far 
distant  from  the  present  river  channels,  indicating,  as 
well  as  the  terraces  before  noticed,  that  the  rivers 
have  run  at  much  higher  levels.  If  the  student 
examine  carefully  the  ledges  which  form  the  sides 
of  the  valleys,  he  will  find  many  of  these  wells  at 
heights  and  distances  from  the  present  river  bed  that 
will  astonish  him. 

On  Union  river,  in  Maine,  the  writer  has  noticed 
pot-holes  8  or  10  feet  deep,  and  50  to  100  feet  above 
the  present  bed  of  the  river ;  and  what  is  seen  on 
this  stream  may  be  observed  on  many  others  in  the 
rocky  portions  of  our  country.  Deep  pot-holes  occur 
both  at  Bedford  Eavine  and  the  place  called  Purga- 
tory, noticed  above. 

But  the  most  interesting  case  of  this  kind  is  found 
in  Orange,  N.  H.  Here,  at  an  elevation  of  1000  feet 
above  the  waters  of  the  Connecticut  and  Merrimac, 
and  1200  feet  above  the  ocean,  there  are  several  of 


AQUEOUS  AGENCIES.  225 

these  pot-holes  in  hard  granite.  One  is  11  feet  deep, 
and  4  feet  in  diameter.  They  were  unquestionably 
produced  by  a  waterfall — by  the  whirling  of  pebbles 
by  the  water ;  but  when,  it  is  not  easy  to  say. 

The  rivers  are  carrying  the  lands  into  the  sea ;  and 
the  amount  of  material  that  has  been  transported  by 
them,  since  the  present  order  of  things  commenced,  is 
truly  wonderful. 

A  large  part  of  Louisiana  has  been  formed  by  mate- 
rial brought  down  by  the  Mississippi,  and  the  land  is 
still  advancing  into  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  from  the 
same  cause.  It  is  estimated  that  28,000,000,000  cubic 
feet  of  sediment  are  annually  carried  down  by  this 
river,  and  deposited  at  its  mouth,  or  swept  away  by 
the  waves  and  currents. 

The  Amazon  is  so  charged  with  sediment  that  its 
waters  can  be  detected,  by  their  discoloration,  three 
hundred  miles  from  its  mouth.  A  part  of  the  sediment 
brought  down  by  this  river  is  carried  by  the  current 
of  that  region,  and  deposited  on  the  coast  of  Guiana, 
which  is  thereby  advancing  upon  the  sea. 

If  we  pass  to  the  Eastern  Continent,  we  find  remark- 
able changes  which  have  been  produced  by  rivers. 
The  Nile  has  formed  a  vast  delta  at  its  mouth.  There 
is  good  evidence  that  nearly  all  Egypt  is  the  gift  of 
this  river.  The  sediment  brought  down  by  the  Nile, 
and  deposited  on  the  adjacent  country,  when  the  river 
overflows  its  banks,  renders  the  soil  productive. 


226  AQUEOUS   AGENCIES. 

Many  of  our  valleys  owe  their  fertility,  as  well  as 
their  gradual  elevation,  to  their  being  annually  inun- 
dated. 

The  amount  of  sediment  carried  down  by  the 
Ganges  and  Brahmapootra  shows  us  how  fast  the 
rivers,  in  some  parts  of  the  world,  are  transporting 
the  lands  into  the  ocean.  Sir  Charles  Lyell  says  that 
"  if  a  fleet  of  eighty  vessels,  each  freighted  with  1400 
tons  weight  of  mud,  were  to  sail  down  that  river  every 
hour  of  every  day  and  night,  for  four  months  con- 
tinuously, it  would  only  transport  from  the  higher 
regions  to  the  sea,  a  quantity  of  matter  equal  to  that 
carried  by  the  Ganges  in  the  four  months  of  the  flood 
season." 

The  Brahmapootra  transports  about  the  same  quan- 
tity as  the  Ganges ;  and  both  these  rivers,  according 
to  the  distinguished  author  just  mentioned,  annually 
carry  down  to  their  delta  forty  thousand  millions  of 
cubic  feet  of  sediment. 

WAVES  are  producing  geological  changes.  In  one 
place  they  wear  away  coasts;  in  another,  they  pile 
hills  of  sand  and  pebbles  as  monuments  of  their 
power.  They  round  the  pebbles  upon  the  shore,  and 
their  continued  action  reduces  them  to  sand. 

"Waves  produce  rapid  changes  when  they  have 
access  to  a  coast  of  loose  materials,  such  as  sand  and 
gravel.  Boston  harbor  undoubtedly  was  once  filled 
with  loose  material,  which  has  been  removed  by  the 


AQUEOUS   AGENCIES.-  227 

waves ;  and  the  islands  there  and  in  the  vicinity,  are 
only  remnants  of  a  mass  of  land  which  has  been  sepa- 
rated from  the  continent.  Nantucket  and  Martha's 
Vineyard  have  also  been  separated  from,  the  main 
land  by  the  same  agency. 

The  results  of  wave  action,  upon  a  given  coast- 
vary  according  to  the  nature  of  the  rocks.  Here  the 
rocks  yield  quickly ;  there  they  are  firm  and  compact, 
and  stand  out  as  bold  headlands.  Trap  dikes  are 
often  removed  by  the  waves ;  and  thus  long  narrow 
channels  are  formed,  extending  far  inland. 

OCEAN  CURRENTS  are  continually  producing  geo- 
logical changes.  Sweeping  past  every  coast,  they 
take  a  portion  of  the  loose  material  brought  down  by 
the  rivers,  and  bear  it  away,  some  of  it  hundreds 
of  miles,  and  spread  it  out  upon  the  floor  of  the 
ocean. 

TIDES  conspire  with  the  waves  and  currents  to 
modify  the  coasts,  and  transport  loose  material.  Lakes 
and  inland  seas  have  no  tides,  or  those  only  a  few 
inches  in  height.  The  tides  of  the  ocean  vary  accord- 
ing to  the  nature  of  the  coast,  from  a  few  feet  to  30 
or  40  feet.  In  the  Bay  of  Fundy  the  tide  rises  70 
feet. 

In  some  situations  a  layer  of  sand  or  mud  is 
deposited  at  each  flow  of  the  tide,  and  thus  the 
successive  layers  retain,  more  or  less  perfectly,  the 


228  AQUEOUS   AGENCIES. 

impression  made  upon  each,  while  it  lay  drying, 
during  the  time  the  tide  was  out. 

We  thus  see  processes  going  on  in  our  bays  and 
estuaries,  which  explain  how  the  foot-prints  and  rain- 
drops of  Connecticut  valley  were  preserved.  The 
unconsolidated  deposits  in  the  Bay  of  Fundy  retain 
tracks  and  other  impressions  on  the  successive  layers. 

GLACIERS  are  vast  masses  of  ice,  of  a  peculiar 
structure,  encased  in  high  mountain  valleys.  They 
are,  in  fact,  the  transformed  snow  which  falls  upon 
the  mountains  above  the  snow  line.  This  snow  is 
gradually  transformed  into  the  glacier  just  as  the 
snow  upon  the  roof  is  transformed  into  icicles. 

The  student  will  bear  in  mind  that  in  ascending 
mountains  in  the  torrid  zone,  we  enter  upon  regions 
of  perpetual  snow  at  a  height  of  16,000  or  18,000 
feet.  The  snow  line — that  is,  where  snow  is  found 
throughout  the  year — is  reached  at  a  less  and  less 
height,  as  we  recede  towards  the  poles;  and,  in  the 
polar  regions,  snow  is  constant  at  ordinary  levels. 

Other  circumstances  being  favorable,  we  may  find 
glaciers  in  those  valleys  which  lead  up  into  the  regions 
of  perpetual  snow. 

The  glaciers  of  the  Swiss  Alps  have  been  studied 
with  great  care  by  De  Saussure,  Venetz,  Charpentier, 
Agassiz  and  Gruyot,  and  Forbes. 

The  writings  of  these  eminent  men  upon  this  sub- 
ject are  full  of  interest  and  instruction. 


AQUEOUS   AGENCIES.  229 

Agassiz  and  Guyot  devoted  eight  or  ten  years  to 
the  study  of  the  Swiss  Glaciers.  While  the  former 
gave  his  attention  more  especially  to  their  present 
condition,  carrying  on  the  most  extensive  and  accurate 
surveys,  particularly  upon  the  Glacier  of  the  Aar, 
which  resulted  in  making  known  to  the  world  the 
laws  which  govern  glacier  motion, — the  latter  spent 
seven  years  in  tracing  out,  for  the  first  time,  the 
position  of  the  boulders,  and  marking  the  extent  of 
the  glaciers  in  past  times. 

All  the  high  valleys  of  the  Alps  contain  glaciers 
which  vary,  according  to  local  circumstances,  in 
length,  breadth,  and  thickness,  and  in  respect  to  the 
height  at  which  they  terminate.  In  some  cases  they 
are  only  a  few  miles  long ;  in  others,  fifteen  or  twenty 
miles.  They  vary  in  width  from  500  or  600  feet  to 
two  or  three  miles.  In  thickness,  they  vary  from  100 
to  200  feet ;  in  some  cases,  however,  they  are  500  or 
600,  and  even  1000  feet  thick.  They  terminate  at  a 
height  of  4000  to  6000  or  7000  feet,  and  sometimes 
descend  as  low  as  3000  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea. 

A  glacier  descends  towards  the  plain  till  heat  melts 
it  away.  The  mass  being  so  enormous,  the  glacier 
often  extends  into  the  regions  of  cultivation,  and 
sometimes  destroys  the  labors  of  the  husbandman. 

The  rate  of  movement  differs  in  different  glaciers, 
and  in  different  parts  of  the  same  glacier.  It  may  be 
stated,  in  general,  that  glaciers  move  down  the  valley 

20 


230  AQUEOUS  AGENCIES. 

from  3  or  4  inches  to  3  feet  a  day ;  the  former  being 
the  more  common  rate. 

There  are  two  prominent  theories  about  the  cause 
of  glacier  motion.  One  theory  regards  the  glacier  as 
a  plastic  body  whose  particles  move  over  one  another 
like  those  of  fluids ;  and  hence  the  mass  moves  onward 
by  the  force  of  gravity.  The  other  theory  finds  the 
main  cause  of  motion  in  the  freezing  and  consequent 
expansion  of  water  in  the  capillary  tubes  and  fissures 
which  permeate  the  whole  mass.  This  expansion  at 
innumerable  points  causes  the  whole  glacier  to  dilate, 
thus  producing  an  onward  movement. 

The  geological  changes  which  glaciers  produce  will 
be  readily  understood.  Encased  as  they  are  in  the 
mountain  valleys,  they  receive  the  rocks  and  earth 
that  are  detached  by  the  frosts  from  the  steep  flanks 
and  peaks  of  the  adjacent  mountains.  The  result  is, 
that  all  along  the  glacier,  on  both  sides,  we  find  an 
accumulation  of  loose  material.  These  accumulations 
are  called  Lateral  Moraines. 

When  two  glaciers  unite,  the  lateral  moraines  on 
each  outer  side  continue  on  as  before,  but  the  lateral 
moraines  on  each  inner  side  unite  in  one  ridge  along 
the  middle  of  the  newly-formed  glacier.  This  accu- 
mulation is  called  the  Medial  Moraine,  and  always 
indicates  a  compound  glacier. 

The  accompanying  cut  gives  the  student  a  good 


AQUEOUS  AGENCIES. 


231 


Upper  part  of  the  Glacier  of  Viesch. 


232 


AQUEOUS   AGENCIES. 


idea  of  a  glacier  with,  both  lateral  and  medial  mo- 
raines. 

The  glacier  pushes  before  it  the  loose  materials 
which  it  meets  in  its  course,  and  this  accumulation  is 
called  the  Terminal  Moraine.  The  accompanying  cut 
gives  a  good  idea  of  the  termination  of  a  glacier,  and 
its  terminal  moraine. 


Fig.  183. 


Lower  part  of  the  Glacier  of  Viesch. 

A  stream  of  water,  as  is  indicated  in  the  cut,  always 
issues  from  beneath  the  lower  end  of  the  glacier. 
Most  of  the  rivers  of  Central  Europe  have  their  origin 
beneath  these  ice  masses. 

The  medial  moraine  is  borne  onward  without  essen- 


AQUEOUS   AGENCIES.  233 

tial  alteration  of  its  materials ;  but  the  rocks  of  the 
lateral  moraines  are  more  or  less  rounded,  smoothed, 
and  often  polished  against  the  rocky  sides  of  the  val- 
ley, which  are  also  farrowed  and  smoothed  by  the 
same  process.  Eocks  from  the  lateral  moraines  often 
get  between  the  glaciers  and  the  walls  of  the  valley, 
and  are  there  rolled  over  and  rounded;  or  getting 
beneath  the  glacier,  are  ground  to  sand  and  mud. 
The  lower  surface  being  thickly  set  with  pebbles  and 
fragments  of  rock,  the  glacier  acts  like  a  mighty  rasp, 
as  it  drags  its  icy  bulk  along  its  course. 

As  the  circumstances  which  produce  glaciers  are 
constant,  or  nearly  so,  the  result  is  an  unceasing 
transport  of  the  rocks  and  other  loose  materials  of 
the  higher  regions  to  lower  levels;  and  as  the  glacier 
is  continually  melting  away  at  its  lower  extremity, 
the  moraines  are  dropped  in  the  same-  relative  posi- 
tions which  they  held  when  connected  with  the  glacier 
itself. 

The  position  of  the  lower  extremity  of  a  glacier 
varies  from  year  to  year.  In  cold  summers,  the 
glacier  advances  farther  towards  the  plain ;  and  in  a 
hot  summer,  this  extension  is  melted  away.  Then 
the  effects  it  has  produced  can  be  observed.  Besides 
the  moraines  which  it  leaves,  the  rocks  on  the  bottom 
and  sides  of  the  valley,  which  have  been  grooved  and 
polished  by  it,  are  open  to  view.  Thus  we  learn  the 

effects  that  glaciers  are  now  producing. 
20* 


234  AQUEOUS  AGENCIES. 

Fig.  184. 


Rock  striated  by  the  action,  of  a  Glacier,  Alps. 


The  moraines,  the  furrowed  and  polished  rocks 
which  we  find  above,  and  beyond  the  present  limits 
of  glaciers,  show  their  extent  in  past  times.  The 
sides  of  the  valleys  of  the  Alps,  from  1000  to  2500 
feet  above  the  present  surface  of  the  glacier,  are 
scratched  and  furrowed,  and  moraines  are  found  at 
that  great  height. 

The  evidence  is  conclusive  that  the  Great  Valley 
of  Switzerland,  between  the  Alps  and  the  Jura  Moun- 
tains, was  once  filled  with  glaciers,  which  transported 
the  boulders  that  now  lie  scattered  on  the  sides  and 
summits  of  the  Jura.  These  mountains  are  limestone ; 
but  their  sides,  towards  the  Alps,  are  covered  with 
blocks  of  granite,  identical  with  that  of  Mont  Blanc 
and  vicinity,  whence  there  is  no  doubt  they  were 
transported.  One  of  these  blocks,  called  Pierre  a  Bot, 
resting  on  the  Jura,  800  feet  above  Lake  ISTeufchatel, 
contains  40,000  cubic  feet. 

ICEBERGS.  In  the  polar  regions  glaciers  descend  to 
the  sea,  and,  becoming  detached  from  the  land,  drift 


AQUEOUS  AGENCIES.  235 

away  as  icebergs.  Icebergs  also  form  by  the  freezing 
of  the  water  near  the  shore,  and  by  additions  of  snow 
blown  from  the  land.  Situated  often  near  high  cliffs, 
they  constantly  receive  blocks  and  fragments  of  stone, 
and  are  thus  filled  from  the  bottom  to  the  top  with 
loose  material.  At  length  the  whole  is  undermined 
by  the  waves,  and  drifts  away. 

Icebergs  are  often  of  enormous  size,  fully  justifying 
the  appellation  of  iceberg  or  ice-mountain.  Scoresby 
saw  five  hundred  in  latitude  70°  north ;  some  of  the 
largest  were  a  mile  in  circumference,  and  100  or  200 
feet  above  the  surface  of  the  water,  and  loaded  with 
earth  and  rocks.  Some  of  these  bergs,  according  to 
his  estimate,  contained  50,000  to  100,000  tons  of 
loose  material. 

As  ice  floats  with  eight-ninths  of  its  bulk  below  the 
surface,  the  true  thickness  of  the  berg  is  nine  times 
its  height  above  the  surface  of  the  water. 

In  Baffin's  Bay,  Sir  John  Eoss  found  many  icebergs 
stranded  in  1500  feet  of  water.  In  1839,  an  iceberg 
about  300  feet  high  was  seen  in  latitude  61°  south, 
and  1400  miles  from  any  known  land.  This  contained 
a  large  mass  of  rock.  The  British  steamer  Acadia 
•observed  one  in  May,  1842,  which  was  400  or  500  feet 
high. 

At  some  seasons  of  the  year,  scarcely  a  voyage  is 
made  between  America  and  Europe  without  meeting 
with  these  floating  ice-mountains. 


236  AQUEOUS  AGENCIES. 

Icebergs  drift  towards  the  equatorial  regions,  lower- 
ing the  temperature  of  the  waters  through  which,  and 
that  of  the  countries  near  which,  they  pass.  They 
scatter  along  their  course  the  earth  and  fragments  of 
rock  which  are  continually  falling  out  of  the  melting 
mass ;  they  plough  along  when  they  strike  a  bottom 
of  loose  material,  crush  submarine  hills  of  slate  rocks, 
and  break  off  and  furrow  the  summits  of  submarine 
mountains. 

We  find  in  the  study  of  glaciers  and  icebergs,  an 
explanation,  more  or  less  complete,  of  the  Drift 
phenomena,  described  in  the  8th  Section  of  the"  8th 
Chapter. 

The  results  which  glaciers  are  now  producing,— 
such  as  transporting  rocks  and  other  loose  materials, 
furrowing  and  polishing  the  rocks  over  which  they 
pass,  and  piling  up  moraines — are  analogous  to,  and 
mostly  identical  with  the  phenomena  of  the  Drift. 
But  whether  the  transported  boulders,  and  the  fur- 
rowed and  polished  rocks  of  North  America,  are  the 
result  of  ice  moving  over  the  surface  as  the  glaciers 
now  move  in  the  valleys  of  the  Alps,  or  whether 
these  results  were  produced  by  icebergs  drifted  over 
the  continent  when  submerged,  is  still  a  question 
upon  which  geologists  are  divided. 

It  may  be  regarded,  however,  as  perfectly  estab- 
lished, that  ice,  in  some  form,  has  done  the  work. 
Mere  currents  of  water  could  never  have  transported 


AQUEOUS  AGENCIES.  237 

boulders  across  deep  valleys,  nor  could  they  have 
produced  the  perfectly  straight  and  parallel  grooves 
upon  the  rocks  in  place.  The  action  of  running 
water  can  always  be  readily  distinguished  from  glacial 
action,  because  the  former  has  a  sinuous  course, 
while  the  latter  moves  in  straight  lines. 

As  there  is  no  longer  a  doubt  that  the  Drift  phe- 
nomena were  produced  by  ice,  it  only  remains  to  be 
decided  whether  the  ice  moved  over  the  surface  of  the 
country  while  it  was  above  the  water,  or  drifted  in 
the  form  of  icebergs  over  the  country  submerged. 
This  question  can  never  be  settled  by  speculation,  but 
only  by  the  most  careful  deductions  from  facts,  some 
of  which,  there  is  reason  to  believe,  are  yet  to  be  col- 
lected. 

It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  agency  which 
furrowed  and  polished  the  rocks  of  this  country^ 
accommodated  itself  to  the  highest  elevations,  within 
the  limits  before  specified,  and  to  the  deepest  depres- 
sions, and  moved  over  great  distances  with  an  unde- 
viating  course.  Now  the  bottom  of  a  floating  iceberg 
strikes  only  those  points  that  lie  in  or  near  a  given 
plane.  That  is,  if  a  berg  strike  the  high  summits,  it 
does  not  touch  the  deep  valleys;  and  if  it  moves 
through  the  deep  valleys,  it  does  not  strike  the  sum- 
mits. 

Again,  icebergs  are  more  or  less  influenced  in  their 
course  by  the  winds ;  and  instead  of  moving  straight 


238  AQUEOUS  AGENCIES. 

onward  when  they  strike  a  submarine  ridge,  they 
turn  around  in  the  direction  of  the  greatest  freedom 
of  motion 

The  above  facts  seem  to  indicate  that  floating  ice- 
bergs were  not  the  chief  agents  which  furrowed  and 
polished  the  rocks  of  North  America.  On  the  con- 
trary, the  facts  seem  to  favor  the  theory,  that  the 
Drift  phenomena  were  mainly  produced  by  ice,  some- 
what analogous  to  glaciers,  moving  from  north  to 
south  over  the  whole  Drift  region. 

Without  doubt  the  continent  has  been  submerged 
since  that  great  ice  period;  and  during  its  gradual 
elevation,  waves,  currents,  and  icebergs  have  con- 
tributed largely  to  the  appearance  which  the  Drift 
regions  now  present. 

It  will  be  seen  from  our  brief  examination  of 
aqueous  agencies,  that  they  all  tend  to  degrade  the 
continents,  and  fill  up  the  sea ;  and  if  there  were  no 
other  agencies  at  work,  those  already  specified  would, 
in  the  course  of  time,  reduce  the  highest  lands  to  a 
level  with  the  ocean :  for  if  any  part  of  such  a  work 
be  accomplished  in  one  year,  time  only  would  be  re- 
quisite to  accomplish  the  whole.  But  there  are  other 
agencies  in  operation,  whose  results  are  often  opposite 
to  those  specified  as  produced  by  water,  under  its 
different  forms  and  conditions.  These  will  be  spoken 
of  in  the  next  section. 


IGNEOUS  AGENCIES.  239 

SECTION  II. 
IGNEOUS   AGENCIES. 

Igneous  agencies,  and  their  results,  may  be  treated 
of  under  the  following  heads, — Yolcanoes,  Earth- 
quakes, and  Thermal  Springs. 

A  VOLCANO  is  a  mountain  from  whose  sides  or 
summit,  either  lava,  cinders,  stones,  and  hot  vapors,  or 
all  of  these,  have  been  ejected.  The  opening  whence 
these  are  thrown  out  is  called  a  crater. 

In  America  volcanoes  occur  on  a  grand  scale,  along 
the  western  coast,  from  Southern  Chili  to  the  20th 
parallel  in  Mexico.  Volcanoes  also  occur  in  Califor- 
nia and  Oregon.  In  the  West  Indies,  a  line  of  vol- 
canoes extends  from  the  island  of  St.  Vincent  to  the 
island  of  Guadaloupe. 

A  line  of  volcanoes  extends  from  Alaska  along  the 
Aleutian  Islands  to  Kamtschatka,  thence  south, 
through  all  the  islands  along  the  eastern  coast  of 
Asia,  to  the  East  Indies,  where  they  reach  their  most 
wonderful  development,  about  forty  occurring  in 
Java. 

A  line  of  volcanoes  extends  from  the  eastern  part 
of  New  Guinea,  through  the  New  Hebrides  and 
Friendly  Islands,  to  Central  New  Zealand.  Southern 


240  IGNEOUS   AGENCIES. 

Europe  and  the  adjacent  islands  constitute  another 
volcanic  region.  Iceland  is  noted  as  a  region  of  vol- 
canoes. The  Azores  the  Cape  Yerde,  and  the  Sand- 
wich Islands,  are  volcanic.  The  last-jiamed  islands 
have  furnished  some  of  the  most  interesting  examples 
of  eruptions  in  modern  times. 

Over  the  regions  specified  above,  are  volcanoes 
either  constantly  or  occasionally  active.  Of  such 
volcanoes  there  are  24  in  Europe,  11  in  Africa,  46  in 
Asia,  114  in  America,  and  108  in  Oceanica.  About 
two-thirds  of  these  are  situated  upon  islands. 

The  indications  of  an  approaching  eruption,  are 
rumbling  sounds,  trembling  of  the  earth,  increase  of 
smoke  from  the  crater,  and  explosions.  At  length 
cinders  and  fragments  of  rock  are  ejected,  and  some- 
times molten  rock  pours  over  the  edge  of  the  crater, 
and  descends  the  mountain  to  the  plain. 

A  volume  might  be  occupied  in  descriptions  of 
those  eruptions  of  which  we  have  authentic  accounts  ; 
but  there  is  room  to  notice  only  a  few.  We  will 
select  from  those  that  have  taken  place  within  the 
Christian  Era. 

Previous  to  A.  D.  63,  Vesuvius  was  regarded  only 
as  an  ordinary  mountain.  None,  except  students  of 
nature,  suspected  that  it  was  a  slumbering  volcano, 
that  had  in  past  times  devastated  the  region  around, 
and  that  it  might  again  send  forth  showers  of  ashes, 
stones,  and  molten  floods.  Its  sides  were  adorned 


IGNEOUS   AGENCIES.  241 

with,  fertile  fields,  and  cities  flourished  at  its  base, 
where  a  numerous  population  engaged  in  all  the 
vocations  of  life,  participated  in  its  joys  and  hopes, 
untroubled  with  one  thought  of  the  destruction  then 
slumbering  beneath  the  mountain.  But  this'year  the 
inhabitants  were  startled  by  an  earthquake,  and  the 
shocks  were  continued  till  the  year  79  following,  when 
a  dark  cloud  of  vapor,  pierced  now  and  then  by  vivid 
flashes  of  light,  appeared  rising  from  the  summit,  and 
soon  the  volcano  broke  forth  in  all  its  awful  power, 
laying  waste  the  fair  fields  upon  its  flanks,  and  over- 
whelming, and  burying  from  human  view,  Hercula- 
neum,  Pompeii,  and  Stabiae. 

Examinations  have  shown  that  these  cities  were 
not  destroyed  by  lava,  but  by  other  volcanic  products, 
such  as  sand,  ashes,  cinders,  and  fragments  of  rock, 
though  Herculaneum  has  subsequently  been  repeat- 
edly overflowed  with  lava. 

Not  only  were  the  cities  buried  in  this  loose  mate- 
rial, but  the  buildings,  cellars,  and  vaults,  were  filled 
by  currents  of  mud  produced  by  the  copious  show- 
ers which  probably  ensued  from  the  condensation  of 
the  vapors. 

Thus  these  cities  were  blotted  out,  and  forgotten 
for  almost  seventeen  centuries;  and  had  they  not 
been  discovered  by  excavation,  their  existence  might 
have  been  denied, -so  meagre  and  indefinite  are  the 
accounts  in  history  concerning  them.  But  all  ques- 
21  Q 


242  IGNEOUS   AGENCIES. 

tions  in  regard  to  their  existence  and  fate  have  been 
settled,  by  the  restoration  of  the  cities  themselves  to 
the  light  of  day. 

In  1713,  the  workmen  in  sinking  a  well,  were 
arrested  in  their  progress,  by  striking  upon  the 
theatre  of  Herculaneum.  This  city  was  buried  to 
the  depth  of  about  100  feet. 

Pompeii  was  not  discovered  till  1750,  although 
covered  above  the  houses  less  than  20  feet  deep. 

Extensive  examinations  have  now  been  made  in 
both  cities.  It  appears  that  most  of  the  inhabitants 
escaped,  and  with  a  considerable  portion  of  their 
movable  property.  But  some  were  left  behind.  At 
Pompeii,  the  skeletons  of  two  victims  were  found  in 
the  stocks ;  and,  in  a  vault,  whither  they  had  probably 
fled  for  safety,  were  the  skeletons  of  seventeen  more. 
One  of  these,  a  woman  with  an  infant  in  her  arms, 
has  left  her  impress  upon  the  rock,  and  her  bones  are 
encircled  by  rings  and  chains  of  gold  that  adorned 
her  in  life ! 

The  streets,  the  houses,  and  the  shops,  are  just  as 
the  inhabitants  left  them  in  their  haste,  almost  1700 
years  before  ; — the  pavements  of  lava,  with  deep  ruts 
worn  by  the  ancient  carriage  wheels ;  the  names  of 
the  owners  over  the  doors  of  the  houses ;  the  writings 
on  the  walls  of  the  soldiers'  barracks,  the  frescoed 
paintings,  as  bright  as  though  put  on  but  yesterday ; 
fabrics  in  the  shops  still  showing  their  texture  and 


IGNEOUS   AGENCIES.  243 

vessels  of  fruit  so  well  preserved  as  to  be  easily 
recognised ;  bread  retaining  the  stamp  of  the  baker, 
and  medicine  on  the  apothecary's  counter,  still  show- 
ing its  real  nature. 

Since  the  year  79,  there  have  been  many  eruptions 
of  Vesuvius,  sometimes  with  centuries  intervening. 
In  1631,  an  eruption  from  this  mountain  destroyed 
Eesina,  a  town  that  had  been  built  over  Herculaneum. 
In  179-i,  the  lava  from  this  volcano  overflowed  Torre 
del  Greco,  filling  the  streets,  and  destroying  more  than 
four  hundred  persons.  It  is  estimated  that  twenty -two 
million  cubic  yards  of  lava  were  thrown  out  at  this 
eruption.  The  principal  street  of  the  town  is  now 
cut  through  this  consolidated  matter,  and  the  rock 
which  in  its  molten  state  destroyed  the  former  houses, 
was  quarried  to  build  new  ones. 

During  the  eruption  of  1822,  the  crater  of  Vesuvius, 
which  had  for  many  years  been  filling  up,  was  cleared 
of  the  accumulated  material,  and  a  gulf  was  formed 
more  than  1000  feet  deep,  and  three-fourths  of  a  mile 
in  diameter ;  and  800  feet  of  the  top  of  the  mountain 
was  carried  away. 

There  was  a  violent  eruption  from  this  mountain  in 
1850,  and  eruptions  of  greater  or  less  extent  have 
taken  place  almost  every  year  since. 

Etna,  on  the  island  of  Sicily,  has  been  more  or  less 
active  from  the  earliest  times  of  which  we  have  any 
account.  This  mountain  is  11,000  feet  high,  and 


244:  IGNEOUS   AGENCIES. 

90  miles  in  circumference.  The  lower  portions  are 
covered  with  fertile  fields,  and  are  thickly  settled; 
the  higher  portions  are  covered  with  forests  of  oak, 
chestnut,  and  pine ;  and  the  highest  regions  are  barren 
lava,  and  other  volcanic  products.  More  than  eighty 
minor  volcanic  cones  arc  scattered  over  its  flanks, 
some  of  them  700  feet  high. 

In  1669,  the  lava  from  Etna  overran  fourteen  towns 
and  villages,  before  it  reached  Catania,  whose  walls 
had  been  raised  to  the  height  of  sixty  feet,  as  a  pro- 
tection against  the  molten  floods  from  this  mountain. 
Here  the  lava  collected  till  it  rose  above  the  high 
wall,  and  poured  in  a  fiery  flood  upon  the  city. 
"The  traveller  may  now  see  the  solid  lava  curling 
over  the  top  of  the  rampart,  as  if  still  in  the  very  act 
of  falling."  After  destroying  a  part  of  the  town,  it 
still  flowed  on,  and  in  a  stream  40  feet  deep,  and 
1800  feet  broad,  entered  the  sea. 

During  this  eruption  a  fissure,  six  feet  wide,  and 
of  unknown  depth,  opened  upon  the  mountain,  for 
the  distance  of  twelve  miles.  The  filling  of  this 
fissure  with  melted  lava  would  produce  a  genuine 
dike,  such  as  has  been  described  in  the  first  part  of 
this  work,  and  such  as  now  occur  in  great  numbers, 
in  Etna,  and  in  other  volcanoes. 

In  1750-60,  Jorullo,  in  Mexico,  experienced  a 
violent  eruption.  Six  volcanic  cones  were  formed  in 
the  very  district  where  before  were  fields  of  sugar- 


IGNEOUS  AGENCIES.  245 

cane  and  indigo.  Forty  years  afterwards,  Humboldt 
found  the  mass  of  matter  produced  at  this  eruption, 
still  hot. 

In  1783,  Skapter  Jokul,  in  Iceland,  sent  forth  two 
streams  of  lava  which  flowed  in  opposite  directions. 
One  of  these  streams  was  50  miles  long  and  12  broad, 
and  the  other  40  miles  long  and  7  broad;  each 
averaging  100  feet  deep,  and  when  pressed  into  gorges, 
as  was  the  case  in  some  parts  of  the  course,  600  feet 
deep.  The  eruption  continued  for  two  years,  and 
destroyed  twenty  villages,  and  9000  inhabitants. 

Imagine  a  river  of  molten  rock,  90  miles  long,  7  to 
12  miles  broad,  and  100  feet  deep,  and  you  have  some 
idea  of  the  amount  of  matter  poured  out  of  Skapter 
Jokul  in  the  eruption  which  commenced  in  1783. 

In  1815,  a  violent  eruption  took  place  on  the  island 
of  Sumbawa.  The  explosions  were  heard  at  the 
distance  of  nearly  a  thousand  miles.  The  falling 
ashes  crushed  houses  40  miles  distant  from  the  place 
of  the  eruption,  and  they  so  filled  the  air  in  Java  as 
to  cause  total  darkness  in  the  daytime.  Floating 
cinders  so  covered  the  sea  west  of  Sumatra,  that  ships 
made  their  way  through  them  with  difficulty. 

The  lava  flowed  over  the  land,  and  entered  the  sea. 
Whirlwinds  swept  over  the  island,  tearing  up  trees, 
and  bearing  off  men,  horses,  .and  cattle.  Of  12,000 
inhabitants,  only  twenty-six  survived  the  awful  catas- 
trophe. 


246 


IGNEOUS  AGENCIES. 


The  most  remarkable  eruptions  of  the  present 
century  have  taken  place  upon  Hawaii,  from  Mauna 
Loa  and  the  craters  upon  its  sides. 

Mauna  Loa  is  13,760  feet  high.  Kilauea,  9790  feet 
below  the  summit  of  the  former,  is  a  crater  16,000 
feet  long,  7500  feet  wide,  and  1000  feet  deep.  From 

Fig.  185. 


Crater  of  Kilauua. 


this  crater  there  was  a  great  eruption  in  1823,  which 
overflowed  extensive  regions  in  the  south-west  part 
of  Hawaii,  and  at  last  the  lava  entered  the  sea  in  a 
stream  four  or  five  miles  wide.  The  amount  of 


IGNEOUS   AGENCIES.  247 

lava  thrown  out  at  this  eruption  is  estimated  at 
27,000,000,000  cubic  feet. 

Another  eruption  from  this  crater  occurred  in  1832, 
and  another  still  in  1840.  Of  the  latter  we  have  very 
definite  accounts  from  Rev.  Mr.  Coan,  whom  I  quote 
below.  Since  1832  the  crater  had  been  gradually 
filling  up  until  the  lava  was  400  or  500  feet  above  its 
ordinary  level,  and  for  some  time  before  the  eruption, 
this  molten  mass  was  "raging  like  the  ocean  when 
lashed  into  fury  by  a  tempest."  At  length,  on  the 
1st  of  June,  1840,  the  lava,  having  made  its  way 
through  subterranean  fissures,  began  its  flow  through 
outlets  several  miles  below  the  true  crater,  and  "sweep- 
ing forest,  hamlet,  plantation,  and  everything  before 
it,  rolled  down  with  resistless  energy  to  the  sea,  where, 
leaping  a  precipice  of  forty  or  fifty  feet,  it  poured  in 
one  vast  cataract  of  fire  into  the  deep  below,  with 
loud  detonations,  fearful  hissings,  and  a  thousand 
unearthly  and  indescribable  sounds. 

"  Imagine  to  yourself  a  river  of  fused  minerals,  of 
the  breadth  and  depth  of  Niagara,  and  of  a  gory  red, 
falling  in  one  emblazoned  sheet,  one  raging  torrent, 
into  the  ocean ! 

"  The  atmosphere  in  all  directions  was  filled  with 
ashes,  spray,  and  gases ;  while  the  burning  lava,  as  it 
fell  into  the  water,  was  shivered  into  millions  of  minute 
particles,  and,  being  thrown  back  into  the  air.  fell  in 
showers  of  sand  on  all  the  surrounding  country. 


24:8  IGNEOUS   AGENCIES. 

"  The  coast  was  extended  into  the  sea  a  quarter  of  a 
mile.  Three  hills  of  scoria  and  sand  were  also  formed 
in  the  sea,  the  lowest  about  two  hundred,  and  the 
highest  about  three  hundred  feet  high. 

"  For  three  weeks  this  terrific  river  disgorged  itself 
into  the  sea,  with  little  abatement.  The  waters  were 
heated  for  twenty  miles  along  the  coast,  and  multitudes 
of  fishes  were  killed. 

"  The  breadth  of  the  stream,  where  it  fell  into  the 
sea,  is  about  half  a  mile;  but  inland  it  varies  from 
one  to  four  or  five  miles  in  width,  conforming,  like  a 
river,  to  the  face  of  the  country  over  which  it  flowed. 
The  depth  varies  from  10  feet  to  200,  according  to  the 
inequalities  over  which  it  passed.  The  whole  course 
of  the  stream,  from  Kilauea  to  the  sea,  is  about  40 
miles. 

"  During  the  flow,  night  was  converted  into  day  in 
all  eastern  Hawaii.  The  light  rose  and  spread  like 
the  morning  upon  the  mountains ;  and  its  glare  was 
seen  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  island.  It  was  also 
distinctly  visible  for  more  than  one  hundred  miles  at 
sea ;  and  at  the  distance  of  forty  miles  fine  print  could 
be  read  at  midnight." 

According  to  Professor  J.  D.  Dana,  15,400,000,000 
cubic  feet  of  matter  flowed  from  Kilauea  at  this  erup- 
tion— a  mass  equal  to  a  triangular  ridge  800  feet  high, 
two  miles  long,  and  a  mile  wide  at  base. 

Mauna  Loa,  the  great  central  crater,  had  an  erup- 


IGNEOUS  AGENCIES.  249 

tion  in  1843,  sending  forth  two  streams  of  lava,  one 
of  which  was  25  miles  long,  and  a  mile  and  a  half 
wide.  During  this  eruption,  the  mountain  was  rent 
for  the  distance  of  25  miles.  This  mountain  had 
another  eruption  in  1852,  during  which  it  sent  forth 
a  jet  of  liquid  matter  1000  feet  in  diameter,  and  700 
feet  high.  Another  eruption  commenced  in  August 
1855,  and  for  a  long  time  threatened  the  destruction 
of  Hilo.  For  seven  or  eight  months,  a  torrent  of 
molten  rocks  flowed  forth  from  the  crater,  forming  a 
stream  65  or  70  miles  long,  and  3  to  5  miles  wide. 

This  year,  1859,  has  witnessed  another  great  erup- 
tion from  Mauna  Loa.  It  commenced  suddenly  on 
the  23d  of  January,  and,  in  a  single  night,  the  molten 
flood  ran  25  miles.  Jets  of  liquid  rock  were  thrown 
to  the  height  of  1500  feet.  Eight  days  after  the  com- 
mencement the  lava  reached  the  sea,  40  miles  from 
the  crater.  Here  it  destroyed  cocoa-nut  groves,  and 
a  little  village,  and  extended  for  two  miles  into  the 
water. 

But  volcanoes  are  not  confined  to  the  land.  We 
have  authentic  accounts  of  eruptions  in  the  sea, 
although  it  is  probable  that  only  a  few,  among  the 
many  that  have  taken  place,  have  been  observed. 

In  1783  a  volcano  broke  forth  in  the  sea  off  the 
coast  of  Iceland,  covering  the  water  with  pumice  to 
the  distance  of  150  miles.  An  island  was  formed 
which  the  Danish  government  called  Nyoe;  but  it 


250  IGNEOUS   AGENCIES. 

disappeared  in  less  than  a  year,  leaving  a  reef  of 
rocks  beneath  the  surface  of  the  water. 

In  1811,  an  island,  called  Sabrina,  was  formed  by 
a  volcanic  eruption,  near  the  Azores.  Its  cone  was 
GOO  feet  above  the  water.  It  was  soon  levelled  down 
by  the  action  of  the  sea. 

In  1831,  a  volcanic  island  appeared  off  the  south- 
cast  coast  of  Sicily,  where  a  few  years  before  there 
was  a  depth  of  600  feet  of  water.  It  is  known  under 
the  name  of  Graham  Island.  It  ejected  volcanic  pro- 
ducts, and  covered  the  sea  with  cinders.  Its  greatest 
dimensions  were  200  feet  in  height,  and  3  miles  in 
circumference.  But  this  also  disappeared  in  a  few 
months. 

It  will  be  seen  by  the  statements  already  made  that 
the  force  exerted  in  a  volcanic  eruption  is  immense. 
To  raise  lava  to  the  summit  of  Mauna  Loa,  Dana 
shows  that  the  pressure  at  the  sea  level  must  be 
17,200  pounds  to  the  square  inch,  or  2,500,000  pounds 
per  square  foot!  Yet  Cotopaxi,  3000  or  4000  feet 
higher  than  Mauna  Loa,  has  ejected  matter  6000  feet 
above  its  summit. 

From  the  few  examples  of  volcanic  action  here 
enumerated,  the  student  may  get  some  idea  of  the 
mighty  changes  volcanoes  are  producing. 

A  single  eruption  like  that  of  Skapter  Jokul,  pours 
out  melted  rock  enough  to  cover  a  township  30  miles 
square  to  the  depth  of  100  feet. 


IGNEOUS   AGENCIES.  251 

Dana  has  shown  that  the  Sandwich  Islands,  and 
many  other  islands  of  the  Pacific,  have  been  built  up 
by  successive  volcanic  eruptions ;  each  eruption 
adding  a  new  layer  to  some  part  of  the  accumulating 
mountain.  Hence  the  stratification  which  volcanic 
rocks  sometimes  exhibit.  Still,  there  is  no  difficulty 
in  distinguishing  volcanic  productions  from  aqueous 
deposits ;  the  former  always  indicating  their  fiery 
origin. 

In  the  numerous  and  extended  fissures,  formed  and 
filled  with  lava  during  an  eruption,  we  have  a  fall 
explanation  of  the  dikes  which  we  find  in  other  places 
where  the  volcanic  fires  have  long  since  ceased  to  act. 

In  the  vast  amount  of  matter  thrown  out  by  volca- 
noes, we  find  positive  proof  that  the  mountain  itself 
does  not  furnish  the  material  which  thus  flows  out 
like  a  mighty  torrent ;  for  the  amount  of  a  single 
eruption  is  sometimes  greater  than  the  whole  mass  of 
the  mountain.  Hence,  we  are  compelled  to  look  to  a 
vast  reservoir  of  melted  matter  for  this  great  supply. 
In  a  word,  the  volcano  is  but  the  outlet  to  the  channel 
or  channels  connecting  with  the  molten  interior  of  our 
globe.  .  ^ 

The  immediate  cause  of  an  eruption  is  undoubtedly 
the  force  produced  by  the  expansion  of  steam  and 
gases  in  contact  with  the  molten  mass  beneath  the 
mountain. 


252  IGNEOUS  AGENCIES. 

In  closing  the  remarks  on  volcanoes  a  word  may 
be  added  about  lava  itself. 

Lava  varies  greatly  in  composition,  structure,  and 
color.  In  some  cases  it  is  very  compact ;  in  others, 
so  porous  and  sponge-like  that  it  will  readily  float 
upon  the  water.  The  varieties  in  structure  result 
mainly  from  the  different  circumstances  under  which 
the  molten  matter  cools.  When  cooled  under  the 
pressure  of  a  superincumbent  mass,  it  generally  forms 
compact  lava.  The  porous  varieties  are  called  scoria 
and  pumice,  and  result  from  the  cooling  of  matter 
while  expanded  with  the  contained  vapors  and  gases. 
In  fact,  scoria  and  pumice  are  often  but  the  froth  or 
foam  of  the  volcano. 

As  the  lava  is  thrown  into  the  air,  the  wind  often 
spins  it  into  fine  threads  of  great  length.  Great 
quantities  of  this  are  found  at  Kilauea,  where  it  is 
called  "  Pele's  hair." 

THERMAL  SPRINGS  are  intimately  connected  with 
volcanic  phenomena,  and  deserve  notice  in  this  place. 
They  occur  in  almost  every  country,  and  remote  from 
volcanoes,  as  well  as  near  them.  There  are  thermal 
springs  in  Virginia,  Arkansas,  Oregon,  the  Utah 
Basin,  and  in  other  parts  of  North  America. 

The  Geysers,  in  the  south-western  part  of  Iceland, 
have  long  been  noted.  The  Great  Geyser  issues  from 
an  elevated  basin,  fifty  feet  in  diameter,  which  gradu- 
ally contracts  into  a  pipe  or  tube,  eight  or  ten  feet  in 


IGNEOUS   AGENCIES.  253 

diameter,  witli  a  perpendicular  depth  of  about  eighty 
feet.  The  basin  is  sometimes  empty,  but  is  generally 
filled  with  boiling  water. 

Sometimes  a  column  of  water  is  thrown  up  100  or 
200  fee^t.  This  violent  action  lasts  only  a  few  minutes. 
After  the  water  is  thrown  out  of  the  pipe,  an  immense 
quantity  of  steam  rushes  up  with  a  deafening  roar ; 
then  all  is  quiet  for  a  time.  The  principal  changes 
produced  by  thermal  springs  is  the  deposition  of 
silicious  matter. 

EARTHQUAKES.  Some  of  the  phenomena  of  earth- 
quakes are  rumbling  sounds,  undulatory  movements 
of  the  ground,  the  opening  of  vast  fissures  in  the 
earth,  the  drying  up  of  fountains,  the  elevation  and 
depression  of  whole  districts  or  countries.  A  few 
examples,  selected  from  the  many  which  are  recorded, 
will  serve  our  present  purpose. 

In  November,  1755,  an  earthquake  occurred  at 
Lisbon,  which  in  six  minutes  destroyed  a  large  part 
of  the  city,  and  60,000  inhabitants.  The  loftiest 
mountains  of  Portugal  were  rent,  and  huge  fragments 
were  thrown  down  into  the  valleys.  Near  Lisbon, 
the  waters  of  the  ocean  rolled  back,  then  rose  again 
fifty  feet  above  their  ordinary  level.  The  land  in  all 
the  adjacent  countries  was  convulsed,  and  in  the  north 
of  Africa,  near  Morocco,  a  town  with  8000  inhabit- 
ants was  swallowod  up. 

22 


254  IGNEOUS   AGENCIES. 

Humboldt  states  that  this  earthquake  was  felt  over 
an  extent  greater  than  four  times  the  area  of  Europe. 

In  1783;  a  great  earthquake  occurred  in  Calabria, 
entirely  changing  the  face  of  the  country,  and  destroy- 
ing 100,000  inhabitants.  The  centre  of  greatest 
motion  was  near  the  town  of  Oppido.  Yast  fissures 
opened  and  closed,  swallowing  up  the  inhabitants, 
cattle,  trees,  and  houses.  Many  of  the  fissures  re- 
mained open  after  the  earthquake  was  over. 

In  1811-12,  an  earthquake  at  New  Madrid,  Missouri, 
caused  the  sinking  of  the  country  over  an  extent  of 
75  miles  by  30,  to  the  depth  of  several  feet.  Lakes, 
twenty  miles  in  extent,  were  formed  in  the  course  of 
an  hour.  The  earth  rose  in  great  undulations ;  fissures 
opened,  and  vast  columns  of  water,  sand,  and  other 
material,  were  thrown  out  to  great  heights. 

Near  New  Madrid,  the  ground  rose  so  as  to  cause  a 
temporary  reflow  of  the  waters  of  the  Mississippi. 
In  some  cases,  the  inhabitants  felled  trees-  over  the 
opening  fissures,  and  getting  upon  them  escaped  being 
swallowed  up.  The  evidences  of  this  earthquake  are 
still  visible. 

In  1812,  the  city  of  Caraccas  was  reduced  to  ruins 
in  a  moment,  by  an  earthquake. 

In  1822,  an  earthquake  elevated  the  coast  of  Chili 
from  two  to  four  feet,  over  an  area  of  100,000  square 
miles. 

At  9  o'clock,  on  the  4th  of  January,  1843,  earth- 


IGNEOUS   AGENCIES.  255 

quake  shocks  were  felt  throughout  most  of  the  United 
States,  from  the  Mississippi  to  the  Atlantic  coast. 

On  February  8,  1843,  the  earthquake  of  Gruada- 
loupe  was  felt  from  New  York  to  the  Amazon  river ; 
but  the  greatest  intensity  was  at  Guadaloupe.  Here 
the  earth  opened,  ejecting  columns  of  water,  and, 
closing  again,  engulphed  men  and  animals. 

Earthquakes  are  undoubtedly  caused  by  the  action 
of  the  heated  interior  of  the  globe  upon  its  crust  or 
outside  part ;  but  precisely  how  this  molten  matter 
operates  to  produce  the  earthquake,  is  not  fully 
understood. 


VERTICAL   MOVEMENTS   WITHOUT   APPARENT   EARTH- 
QUAKES. 

Scandinavia  has  been,  and  is  now,  undergoing 
quiet  vertical  movements. 

The  observations  in  respect  to  these  movements, 
have  been  more  particularly  made  in  Sweden.  That 
country  is  gradually  rising ;  the  more  rapidly  as  we 
go  toward  the  north.  In  fact,  the  extreme  southern 
portion  is  gradually  sinking. 

That  elevation  has  been  going  on,  is  proved  by  the 
fact,  that  beds  of  shells,  of  the  same  species  as  those 
now  inhabiting  the  adjacent  waters,  are  found  from 
100  to  200  feet  above  the  present  water  level,  and 
barnacles  are  attached  to  the  rocks  at  that  height. 


256  IGNEOUS  AGENCIES. 

These  proofs  exist  from  Gottenburg  and  Udde valla 
to  Torneo,  and  even  to  the  North  Cape.  Similar 
proofs  of  elevation,  within  a  comparatively  recent 
period,  exist  in  Norway. 

That  the  most  southern  portion  of  Sweden  is  sink- 
ing gradually,  is  shown  by  the  streets  of  the  ancient 
seaport  towns,  which  are  now  below  the  water  level. 
Another  proof  is  the  fact  that  the  sea  is  100  feet 
nearer  a  large  rock  at  Trelleborg  than  it  was  in  the 
time  of  Linnaeus,  as  shown  by  the  record  of  that 
naturalist. 

The  west  coast  of  Greenland  is  gradually  sinking. 

Since  the  Christian  era,  parts  of  the  coast  of  Italy, 
in  the  region  of  Naples,  have  undergone  vertical 
movements,  amounting  to  20  or  30  feet  in  each 
direction.  The  record  of  these  changes  is  not  only 
left  on  the  coast  itself,  but  also  on  the  columns  of 
the  temple  of  Jupiter  Serapis,  at  Puzzuoli. 

The  remains  of  this  temple  had  not  been  noticed  till 
1749,  at  which  time  three  pillars  were  found  project- 
ing several  feet  above  a  marine  deposit  in  which  they 
stood.  Their  tops  were  surrounded  with  bushes, 
which  had  prevented  their  previous  discovery. 

The  position  of  the  columns  in  the  marine  strata, 
furnishes  xis  with  the  proof  that  the  land  had  been 
depressed,  and  again  elevated. 

That  the  sea  stood  around  these  columns  for  a  con- 
siderable length  of  time,  is  shown  not  only  by  the 


IGNEOUS  AGENCIES.  257 

depth  of  marine  strata  found  surrounding  them,  but 
by  the  fact  that  the  columns  themselves  are  perforated 
extensively  by  lithodomous  molluscs  whose  shells  still 
remain  in  the  cavities. 

Similar  records  found  in  connection  with  this 
temple,  inform  us  that  elevations  and  depressions, 
previous  to  those  now  described,  have  also  occurred 
in  this  region. 

Large  regions  in  the  southern  portion  of  South 
America  have  been  undergoing  gradual  elevation. 

The  cause  of  these  quiet  vertical  movements  pro- 
bably lies  in  the  fact  of  the  gradual  cooling  and  con- 
sequent contraction  of  the  molten  matter  within.  The 
crust  of  the  globe,  in  accommodating  itself  to  the  con- 
tracting nucleus,  must  of  necessity  rise  in  some  places 
and  fall  in  others. 

22*  R 


258  ORGANIC   AGENCIES. 

SECTION  III. 
OEGANIC   AGENCIES. 

Organic  agencies,  though  silent  in  their  operations, 
are  none  the  less  surely  producing  important  geologi- 
cal changes. 

We  have  already  seen  that  the  strata  in  many 
districts  are  mainly  composed  of  the  remains  of  plants 
and  animals,  and  that  the  beds  of  mineral  coal  are 
wholly  of  vegetable  origin.  Plants  and  animals  are 
still  contributing  to  the  formation  of  strata  upon  our 
globe. 

The  great  bulk  of  vegetation,  as  remarked  in 
another  place,  is  carbon.  Plants  receive  all  their 
food  through  the  leaves,  and  through  the  roots ;  the 
former  receiving  the  gaseous,  and  the  latter  the  liquid 
nourishment.  There  is  about  one  gallon  of  carbonic 
acid  in  twenty-five  hundred  gallons  of  pure  atmo- 
spheric air.  Decay,  combustion,  and  respiration,  all 
tend  to  make  the  amount  of  carbonic  acid  greater; 
and  the  whole  atmosphere  would  become  unfit  for 
respiration,  were  it  not  for  the  fact  that  plants  receive 
their  carbon  mainly  from  the  air.  Every  tree  hangs 
out  its  thousands,  and  often  its  millions  of  leaves. 
Each  leaf  is  covered  with  almost  an  innumerable 


ORGANIC   AGENCIES.  259 

number  of  mouths.  Through  these  the  carbonic  acid 
of  the  atmosphere  is  taken  into  the  leaf,  where  it  is 
decomposed,  the  carbon  retained  for  the  growth  of  the 
plant,  and  the  oxygen  given  back  to  the  atmosphere. 

In  this  connection  I  ought  to  notice  the  fact,  that 
every  branch  upon  the  tree,  every  twig  upon  the 
branch,  every  leaf  upon  the  twig,  and  the  sepals, 
petals,  and  stamens  of  every  flower,  are  arranged 
with  mathematical  relations  to  another ;  which  not 
only  contributes  to  the  growth  of  the  plant,  but 
reveals  that  perfection  which  is  found  everywhere 
in  Nature.  On  most  plants  the  leaves,  and  conse- 
quently the  branches,  are  arranged  so  that  a  thread 
drawn  from  one  to  the  next  above  it,  and  from  'this  to 
a  third,  and  so  on,  will  pass  spirally  around  the  stem; 
and  a  little  careful  study  will  show  that  leaves  upon 
plants  are  either  ],  -J-,  f,  f,  -*s,  58f,  ||,  or  f^,  of  the 
circumference  of  the  stem  apart, — disregarding  only 
the  vertical  distance  which  separates  them.  This 
secures  the  greatest  possible  space  to  each  leaf,  whose 
function  it  is  to  secure  the  poisonous  gas  of  the 
atmosphere,  and  extract  from  it  the  material  with 
which  to  form  the  woody  fibre. 

The  forests  and  the  little  plants,  then,  are  every- 
where gathering  in  the  carbon  from  the  atmosphere, 
which  they  sooner  or  later  add  to  the  ground  upon 
which  they  stand.  Plants  are  forming  peat  in  all  the 
swamps  of  the  cool  countries.  It  is  rarely  formed  in 


260  ORGANIC   AGENCIES. 

the  hot  regions,  on  account  of  the  rapidity  with  which 
vegetation  decays  there.  The  amount  of  carbon  in 
the  peat  bogs  of  the  United  States  and  Europe  is 
immense,  and  shows  us  what  changes  are  going  on 
through  the  silent  growth  of  plants. 

At  certain  seasons  of  the  year,  drift-wood  covers 
our  large  rivers  that  flow  through  timbered  regions. 
This  collects  in  rafts  covering  the  river  for  long 
distances,  or  it  becomes  water-logged  and  sinks,  and 
is  covered  by  the  sands.  Large  accumulations  of 
vegetation  are  found  along  the  Mississippi  and  its 
tributaries.  Near  *  the  mouth  of  that  river,  sand, 
gravel,  and  vegetable  matter,  in  alternate  layers,  have 
accumulated  to  a  great  depth. 

In  thirty -five  years,  a  raft  of  drift-wood,  10  miles 
long,  600  feet  wide,  accumulated  on  the  Atchafalaya. 
Over  this  a  soil  formed,  giving  support  to  a  luxuriant 
growth  of  plants.  A  raft  on  the  "Washita  concealed 
the  surface  of  the  river  for  50  miles.  Similar  cases, 
though  less  extensive,  are  common. 

The  various  vegetable  accumulations  described 
above,  may  form  the  coal-beds  of  a  coming  age. 

Animals  are  constantly  producing  changes ;  and  it 
is  a  remarkable  fact  that  those  which  are  producing 
the  greatest  changes  are  among  the  smallest  in  the 
Animal  Kingdom.  Silicious  and  calcareous  deposits 
are  constantly  forming  from  the  shields  of  infusorial 
animals.  The  marl  which  is  found  beneath  peat  in 


ORGANIC   AGENCIES.  261 

peat  bogs,  is  wholly  composed  of  the  shields  or 
skeletons  of  Infusoria.  Such  deposits  are  found  at 
the  bottoms  of  many  of  the  ponds  in  New  England. 
Calcareous  marls  are  also  forming  in  many  parts  of 
our  country.  In  Williamstown,  Yt.,  the  bottom  of  a 
pond  or  lake,  which  was  drained  some  years  ago,  is 
covered  with  calcareous  marl  from  two  to  twenty  feet 
deep. 

Coral  polyps  especially  claim  our  attention.  These 
have  already  been  described  in  our  remarks  on  the 
Animal  Kingdom.  It  only  remains  to  give  here  some 
idea  of  the  extent  of  the  changes  coral  animals  are 
producing. 

Wherever  circumstances  favor  its  growth,  accumu- 
lations of  coral  border  all  the  islands  and  shores 
within  the  tropics.  These  accumulations  are  called 
Coral  Eeefs. 

When  a  reef  stands  close  to  the  shore,  it  is  called 
a  Fringing  Reef;  and  when  at  a  distance  from  the 
shore,  a  Barrier  Reef.  Both  fringing  and  barrier 
reefs  are  often  found  around  the  same  island. 

Coral  reefs  vary  in  width,  from  a  few  hundred  feet 
to  a  mile.  The  barrier  reef  sometimes  stands  10  or 
15  miles  from  the  shore,  leaving  a  wide  channel,  and 
often  fine  harbors,  between  itself  and  the  land.  Some- 
times the  barrier  reef  nearly  encircles  the  island, 
leaving  only  here  and  there  an  opening;  in  other 
cases,  it  appears  only  on  one  or  two  sides. 


262 


ORGANIC   AGENCIES. 


A  barrier  reef  sometimes  surrounds  several,  and 

not  unfrequently  very  many  islands.  Between  a 

barrier  reef  and  the  island,  the  water  is  generally 
shallow ;  but,  at  -a  little  distance  outside  the  reef,  it  is 
often  unfathomable. 

A  Coral  Island  or  Atoll  is  simply  a  barrier  reef 

Fig.  18G. 


HE* 


Coral  Island  with  a  Lagoon,  South  Pacific. 


surrounding  a  body  of  water  or  lagoon,  as  represented 
in  Fig.  186.  Sometimes,  however,  the  lagoon  is 
wanting. 


ORGANIC   AGENCIES.  263 

Coral  islands  seldom  rise  more  than  8  or  10  feet 
above  the  water,  being  so  low  that  the  waves  often 
dash  over  into  the  lagoon. 

Both  in  the  lagoons,  and  in  the  channels  between 
the  barrier  reefs  and  the  island,  corals  grow  in  great 
perfection. 

It  was  formerly  supposed  that  coral  reefs  and  coral 
islands  were  built  up  from  the  great  depths  of  the 
sea;  but  it  is  now  known  that  most  reef-producing 
polyps  do  not  flourish  in  water  that  is  more  than  20 
or  30  fathoms  in  depth.  It  was  also  formerly  sup- 
posed that  the  annular  form  of  coral  islands  was  due 
to  their  having  been  built  on  the  edges  of  submarine 
craters ;  but  this  is  no  longer  believed. 

The  explanation  of  coral  reefs  and  coral  islands  is 
one  and  the  same.  They  grow  on  the  flanks  of 
mountains  whose  summits  are  high  islands.  Such 
islands  are  numerous  in  the  Pacific ;  and  it  is  well 
known  that  many  of  them  are  gradually  sinking. 

The  upward  growth  of  coral  thus  tends  to  counter- 
balance the  loss  of  land  occasioned  by  subsidence  in 
those  regions. 

Through  the  influence  of  coral  polyps,  there  are 
now  two  hundred  islands  in  the  Pacific,  where,  but  for 
the  growth  of  corals,  there  would  be  less  than  twenty. 

The  following  ideal  sections  of  a  gradually  sinking- 
island  illustrate  the  growth  of  coral  reefs  and  the 
formation  of  Atolls. 


264: 


ORGANIC   AGENCIES. 


Fig.  187  represents  an  island  with  its  shores  fringed 
with  coral,  constituting  a  Fringing  Eeef. 

Fig.  187. 


Section  of  an  Island  with  Fringing  Reef. 

Fig.  188  shows  the  same  island  after  further  sub- 
sidence, and  a  great  increase  of  the  reef,  which  has 
now  become  a  Barrier -Keef. 

Fig   188. 


Section  of  an  Island  with  Barrier  Keef. 


At  length  the  island  is  completely  submerged ;  the 
Barrier  Eeef  becomes  a  Coral  Island,  or  Atoll. 


Fig.  189. 


Section  of  a  Coral  Island  or  Atoll. 


Other  things  being  favorable,  reef-growing  polyps 
flourish  wherever  the  winter  temperature  is  not  below 
66°  F. 


ORGANIC   AGENCIES.  265 

The  greatest  reef  region  in  the  world  extends  from 
New  Caledonia  to  the  northeast  coast  of  Australia. 
A  reef  400  miles  long  skirts  the  western  shore  of  the 
first-named  island;  and  a  reef  extends  along  the 
north-east  coast  of  Australia  from  East  Cape  to  Torres 
Strait,  a  distance  of  1000  miles.  All  the  islands  be- 
tween New  Caledonia  and  Australia  are  of  coral 
growth. 

The  Feejee,  Tonga,  Navigator,  Society,  and  Gam- 
bier  Islands  abound  with  coral  reefs. 

The  Pamotus  embrace  eighty  coral  islands,  most  of 
them  with  lagoons.  The  Hapai  group  is  composed 
wholly  of  coral  islands.  The  islands  of  Central 
Archipelago,  north  of  the  Feejees,  are  all  of  coral 
formation,  as  are  nearly  all  of  the  Caroline  Islands. 

The  Sooloo  Sea  is  a  coral  reef  region ;  and  coral 
abounds  in  many  other*  parts  of  the  East  Indies.  The 
islands  of  the  Indian  Ocean  are  of  coral  growth,  or 
bordered  by  coral  reefs.  The  Ked  Sea  and  Persian 
Gulf  are  coral  regions. 

Florida,  south  of  St.  Augustine,  is  wholly  of  coral 
formation ;  and  extensive  reefs  are  still  growing  on 
the  coast  of  that  peninsula.  The  Bermudas  are  of 
coral  growth ;  and  coral  abounds  in  the  West  Indies. 

Some  of  the  coral  reefs  of  the  Pacific  are  from  1000 
to  2000  feet  thick, — so  great  has  been  the  subsidence, 
and  yet  so  slow,  that  the  growing  reef  has  kept  pace 
with  the  sinking  land. 

23 


266  ORGANIC  AGENCIES. 

Did  not  subsidence  take  place,  no  reef  could  become 
thicker  than  20  or  30  fathoms — the  maximum  depth 
at  which  coral  polyps  flourish. 

The  rate  at  which  coral  reefs  grow  has  not  been 
satisfactorily  determined ;  but  probably  it  is  not  more 
than  one  foot  in  a  century.  According  to  recent 
investigations  of  Agassiz,  in  Florida,  the  rate  does 
not  exceed  half  a  foot  a  century.  Taking  the  highest 
of  these  estimates,  we  see  what  an  amount  of  time  is 
indicated  by  a  reef  1000  or  2000  feet  thick. 

From  these  facts  about  coral  polyps,  we  get  some 
idea  of  the  extent  of  the  geological  changes  these 
little  animals  are  producing,  Wa  also  learn  how  the 
limestones  of  our  present  continents  were  formed ;  for 
it  is  settled  by  the  most  careful  investigations  that 
they  are  all  of  animal  origin,  and  that  the  coral 
polyps  have  been  among  the  'most  prominent  agents 
in  their  production. 

The  common  reef  corals  are  composed  mainly  of 
carbonate  of  lime,  90  to  96  parts  in  100  being  of  this 
substance.  The  remaining  parts  are  organic  matter, 
phosphates,  fluorids,  magnesia,  silica,  and  oxyd  of 
iron. 

Therefore  we  find  in  the  coral  reef  the  materials 
necessary  to  form  the  limestones,  and  the  minerals 
which  accompany  them,  such  as  fluor  spar,  apatite, 
chondrodite,  &c. 

Though  coral  polyps  have  undoubtedly  been  the 


ORGANIC  AGENCIES.  267 

most  prominent  agents  in  the  production  of  the  lime- 
stones, all  other  animals  which  have  calcareous  skele- 
tons or  shields  have  contributed  to  the  same  result. 
The  shells  of  molluscs  and  other  testaceous  animals 
are  contributing  largely  to  the  formation  of  strata  in 
many  parts  of  the  world.  It  is  common  to  find  im- 
mense accumulations  composed  wholly  of  cemented 
shells,  constituting  what  is  called  shell  limestone. 

Man  is  producing  geological  changes.  He  aids  in 
the  distribution  of  animals  from  their  original  centre, 
and  causes  the  extinction  of  species.  He  changes  the 
courses  of  rivers,  rescues  land  from  the  sea ;  and  the 
products  of  his  industry  go  to  make  up  a  part  of  the 
strata  now  forming — Nature's  record  of  the  present 
age. 


CHAPTEE  X. 

CONCLUDING  REMARKS. 

WE  are  now  prepared  to  take  a  somewhat  more 
enlarged  view  of  our  subject;  and  to  understand  better 
the  true  relations  and  significance  of  those  facts  which 
have  been  pointed  out  in  the  previous*  pages.  I  pro- 
pose, therefore,  to  devote  this  chapter  to  a  statement 
of  some  of  those  great  truths  and  principles  which 
naturally  flow  from  the  facts  with  which  the  student 
has  now  been  made  acquainted;  at  the  same  time 
recalling  the  facts  themselves;  so  far  as  necessary  to 
bring  the  subject  clearly  before  the  mind. 

The  high  antiquity  of  the  earth  is  one  of  the  great 
truths  which  geological  investigations  reveal. 

This  truth  is  forced  upon  the  mind  by  the  careful 
study  of  a  single  geological  formation ;  but  when  we 
connect  all  the  great  formations- and  systems  in  their 
chronological  order,  the  human  mind  is  unable  to 
comprehend  the  vast  duration  which  opens  before  it. 

Until  a  comparatively  recent  period,  the  opinion 
was  popular  that  the  earth  is  only  about  6000  years 
old ;  but  the  records  in  the  rocks  compel  us  to  believe 

(268) 


CONCLUDING   EEMAKKS.  269 

that  this  is  no  more  than  the  measure  of  time  since 
the  present  order  of  things  commenced. 

We  have  looked  upon  the  Pyramids,  and  the 
buried  cities  of  the  East,  as  monuments  of  great 
antiquity ;  and  compared  with  the  life  of  man,  they 
may  be  so  considered ;  but  the  rocks  in  the  founda- 
tions of  Nineveh,  and  the  blocks  which  compose  the 
Pyramids,  were  filled  and  covered  all  over  with  hiero- 
glyphs when  taken  from  the  quarry;  and  they  tell 
us  of  ages  a  thousand  times  more  remote  from  the 
builders  of  those  massive  structures,  than  is  the 
amount  of  time  which  separates  us  from  them. 

We  shall  never  be  able  to  number  the  centuries  our 
planet  has  been  in  existence;  we  must  measure  its 
history  by  epochs,  and  not  by  years.  But  we  shall 
gain  a  truer  idea  of  the  age  of  the  earth,  if  we 
trace  back  the  stream  of  time  through  the  several 
geological  periods,  beginning  with  the  most  recent, 
and  going  back  to  the  oldest.  Let  us  endeavor, 
briefly,  to  do  this. 

By  an  examination  of  the  deltas,  and  other  super- 
ficial deposits  which  are  comprised  under  Alluvium, 
as  limited  in  our  classification,  we  are  carried  back  to 
a  period  long  anterior  to  the  creation  of  man. 

The  deep  gorge  at  Niagara,  and  the  deltas  of  the 
Mississippi,  the  Ganges,  and  the  Nile,  point  us  to 
changes  that  must  have  occupied  tens  of  thousands 
of  years;  yet  these  have  all  taken  place  since  the 


270  CONCLUDING    REMARKS. 

continents  assumed  essentially  their  present  position, 
and  are  therefore  among  the  modern  changes  that 
have  passed  upon  the  earth. 

The  changes  indicated  by  the  Drift  have  also  oc- 
curred since  the  present  great  outlines  were  stamped 
upon  the  continents ;  but  before  those  just  specified, 
as  is  proved  by  the  fact  that  the  rivers  have  been  cut- 
ting down  their  channels  through  the  accumulated 
material  of  the  Drift  Period,  and  leaving  terrace  after 
terrace  as  if  for  way-marks  in  the  march  of  ages. 

We  observe  the  boulder  poised  upon  the  hill,  or 
mountain  side.  Could  we  but  read  its  history  aright, 
it  would  doubtless  reveal  a  fund  of  information  con 
cerning  our  earth,  greater  than  that  now  possessed  by 
any  human  mind.  The  storms  have  beaten  upon  it  for 
ages  where  it  now  stands,  and  the  hand  of  time  has 
broken  many  a  fragment,  and  piled  them  at  its  base, 
as  if  to  number  the  centuries  of  its  age. 

But  the  boulder  has  not  always  rested  in  its  present 
position.  By  examination  we  find  it  entirely  different 
from  the  rock  upon  which  it  rests,  and  is  therefore 
not  a  part  of  that.  It  has  journeyed  far.  ~No  human 
eye  beheld  its  wanderings,  or  saw  it,  at  the  close  of  its 
journey,  rest  upon  the  mountain.  Yet  its  history  is 
written.  From  the  time  it  was  broken  from  the  parent 
ledge,  till  it  stopped  in  its  present  place,  it  wrote  its 
own  story,  which  can  be  read  upon  the  rocks  to-day. 
There  is  its  path  in  the  solid  rock.  The  rains  have 


CONCLUDING    KEMAKKS.  271 

beaten  upon  that  path  for  long  years,  but  have  not 
washed  it  away.  Old  Ocean  has  rolled  his  waves 
over  it,  but  there  it  is.  See  what  heights  this  boulder 
has  travelled  over — what  valleys  it  has  crossed !  The 
Glacier,  or  the  Iceberg,  has  borne  it  over  all  these, 
and  lifted  it  high  above  the  valley  and  poised  it  upon 
the  mountain  side. 

Who  shall  number  the  centuries  that  have  rolled 
away  since  it  paused  there  in  its  course,  or  measure 
the  time  of  its  journey  ?  Nay,  who  shall  tell  the  ages 
that  it  occupied  its  place  in  the  parent  ledge,  before 
the  glacier  or  the  iceberg  wrenched  it  from  the  mass, 
and  bore  it  away  ? 

But  look  closer.  This  boulder  itself,  perchance  is 
made  up  of  pebbles,  each  of  which  was  once  a  part 
of  a  solid  rock,  whose  fragments,  worn  and  polished 
by  the  lapse  of  centuries,  are  again  cemented  to  form 
the  rocky  strata,  which,  after  being  undisturbed  for 
ages,  are  broken  up,  and  the  masses  borne  away  by 
the  ice,  and  scattered  upon  distant  mountains,  where 
they  have  been  so  long,  that  Time  has  written  anti- 
quity on  their  decaying  fronts. 

Such  are  some  of  the  evidences  of  antiquity,  which 
the  phenomena  of  the  Drift  unfold  to  us. 

But,  before  the  Drift,  were  produced  all  those  de- 
posits, embracing  several  extensive  formations,  which 
constitute  the  Tertiary  System.  It  was  during  the 
Tertiary  period  that  the  strata  were  formed  which  fill 


272  CONCLUDING   KEMAKKS. 

the  basins  of  London,  Paris,  and  Vienna,  to  a  depth 
several  times  greater  than  that  which  has  accumulated 
since  the  creation  of  man.  During  this  period,  large 
tracts  of  America,  along  the  Atlantic  coast,  were 
beneath  the  waters;  and  Europe  was  so  penetrated 
and  covered  by  the  ocean  that  it  presented  a  widely 
different  aspect  from  what  it  presents  to-day. 

Yet  the  Tertiary  period  was  one  of  life.  Fishes 
swam  those  ancient  waters,  and  molluscs  'crept  along 
the  bottoms.  In  the  shallow  coves  where  the  waters 
of  the  land  mingled  with  those  of  the  ocean,  reptiles, 
both  large  and  small,  basked  in  the  sunshine,  and 
dragged  their  bodies  among  the  reeds  and  rushes,  as 
they  do  now. 

The  rivers  now  and  then  are  flooded,  and  sweep 
onward  to  the  sea  the  foliage  and  trunks  of  palms,  and 
cone-bearing  trees,  land  and  river  shells,  and  the 
bodies  of  Anoplotheria,  and  Paleotheria,  and  other 
animals  that  cannot  escape  the  descending  flood ;  and 
reptiles  too,  that  make  their  haunts  near  the  rivers7 
mouths,  are  borne  out,  and  mingled  with  the  remains 
of  the  life  of  the  sea. 

Thus  the  strata  accumulate,  and  the  continents  at 
length  are  lifted  higher  above  the  waters,  and  assume 
more  nearly  their  present  outlines, — the  Tertiary 
Period  is  ended,  yet  its  records  of  life,  and  death,  and 
change  remain. 

But  the  Cretaceous  System  points  us  to  a  period,  as 


CONCLUDING  REMARKS.  273 

long  probably  as  the  Tertiary,  which  closed  ere  the 
latter  began. 

And  before  the  Cretaceous,  was  the  Oolitic  Period, 
during  which  reptilian  life  reached  its  culmination. 
In  this  era,  no  true  placental  mammals  lived.  For 
thousands  of  years,  the  Plesiosaurians,  Ichthyosau- 
rians,  and  Pterodactyls,  could  well  be  styled  the  lords 
of  creation. 

Before  the  Oolitic,  came  the  New  Eed  Sandstone 
Period,  at  the  commencement  of  which  reptilian  life 
had  scarcely  begun  on  our  planet.  In  this  period,  the 
sandstone  of  Connecticut  River  Valley  was  formed, 
upon  successive  layers  of  which  are  impressed  the 
foot-prints  of  animals  so  far  removed  from  our  time, 
that  the  naturalist  hesitates,  in  many  cases,  whether 
to  refer  them  to  Bird  or  Eeptile. 

But  the  Carboniferous  Period  was  before  the  New 
Red  Sandstone, — and  how  shall  we  adequately  express 
its  great  duration  ? 

The  united  thickness  of  the  coal-beds  in  some 
regions  is  from  100  to  200  feet,  and  these  beds  are 
distributed  throughout  ten  to  twenty  times  the  thick- 
ness of  strata  which  have  accumulated  since  the  crea- 
tion of  man. 

When  we  consider  the  thickness  of  the  coal-beds, 
and  the  thickness  of  the  strata  which  contain  them, 
and  are  interstratified  with  them,  and  when  we  re- 
member that  this  carbon  has  been  taken  from  the 


274  CONCLUDING   EEMAEKS. 

atmosphere  by  vegetation,  and  that  the  containing 
rocks  have  accumulated  through  the  agency  of  water, 
and  indicate  successive  vertical  movements  during 
their  formation,  which  also  implies  time, — when  these 
facts  are  properly  collated,  and  their  true  import 
understood,  we  have  an  argument  for  antiquity  which 
is  irresistible. 

Yet,  the  Carboniferous,  embracing  such  a  great 
thickness  of  strata,  implying  an  immensity  of  time  of 
which  we  can  scarcely  form  any  conception,  is  but  a 
single  one.  of  those  grand  periods  which  measure  off 
the  mighty  cycles  of  the  past. 

But  before  this  period  began,  the  Old  Eed  Sand- 
stone Period  was  past,  leaving,  as  a  faithful  record  of 
the  time  of  its  duration,  stratified  rocks  thousands  of 
feet  in  thickness,  and  replete  with  the  remains  of  life. 

But  ere  any,  and  all  these  named  above,  came  the 
long  Silurian.  In  this  period  life  dawned  upon  our 
planet — marine  life,  yet  it  foreshadowed  that  of  to-day. 

"Who  can  follow  the  centuries,  and  faithfully  register 
their  number,  while  the  twenty  or  thirty  thousand 
feet  of  Silurian  rocks  accumulated  on  the  bottom  of 
those  ancient  oceans?  So  slowly  did  the  work  of 
deposition  go  on  in  many  places,  that  the  bottom  of 
the  ocean  was  elevated  more  rapidly  by  the  additions 
from  the  remains  of  animal  life,  than  from  the  sedi- 
ment thrown  down  by  the  waters.  So  stands  the 
record  to-day.  Strata,  ten,  twenty,  fifty,  or  a  hundred 


CONCLUDING  REMARKS.  275 

or  more  feet  in  thickness,  composed  almost  wholly  of 
animal  remains,  prove  this  statement  beyond  the  least 
shadow  of  a  doubt. 

For  a  period  beyond  the  grasp  of  human  conception, 
the  Silurian  ocean  covered  the  greater  part  of  the  sur- 
face of  the  earth.  Then  were  only  scattered  islands, 
where  are  now  broad  continents.  The  range  of  animal 
species  was  wide ;  the  same  living  in  various  parts  of 
the  world.  This  period  ended,  but  its  stupendous 
monuments  still  remain,  upon  which  we  may  read  the 
story  of  its  great  duration. 

Thus  we  have  threaded  our  way  back  through  the 
life  periods  of  our  globe,  but  we  have  not  reached  the 
source  of  the  "  Stream  of  Time." 

Before  any  and  all  these,  the  solid  rocks  tell  us  of 
time  probably  as  extended  as  the  aggregate  of  those 
periods  through  which  we  have  in  imagination  now 
passed,  during  which  our  earth  was  an  uninhabited 
cheerless  world.  Nay,  what  ages  must  have  rolled 
away,  during  which  the  earth's  crust  became  cooled, 
and  the  waters  gathered  upon  it ;  which  took  place 
before  the  stratified  rocks  even  began  to  form. 

Now,  when  we  connect  all  these  periods,  what  an 
ocean  of  time  rolls  up  from  the  mighty  past !  We 
are  then  ready  to  exclaim  with  the  Psalmist,  "  OF  OLD 

HAST  THOU  LAID  THE  FOUNDATIONS  OF  THE  EARTH." 

This  truth,  the  great  antiquity  of  the  earth,  so 
plainly  taught  in  nature's  own  records,  is  one  which 


276  CONCLUDING  EEMAEKS. 

has  caused  the  science  of  Geology  to  be  looked  upon 
with  suspicion,  by  those  who  believe  the  Sacred 
Scriptures  limit  the  age  of  the  world  to  6000  years. 
And  this  truth  is  often  assailed  as  though  it  were  the 
peculiar  property  of  the  geologist,  while  it  is  a  truth 
which  belongs  to  all  mankind.  It  had  not  its  origin 
with  man;  but  with  God.  It  was  registered  in  endur- 
ing characters  ere  man  was  created.  And  I  will  not 
attempt  to  say  whether  it  be  worse  to  deny  the  truths 
which  He  has  revealed  in  His  Word,  or  those  which 
He  has  revealed  in  His  works. 

As  truly  as  the  earth  exists,  so  true  is  it  that  the 
rocks  are  filled  with  different  races  of  animals  that 
have  successively  inhabited  the  surface  of  the  earth. 
"We  may  argue  as  much  as  we  please  to  show  that  the 
"plastic  forces  of  nature"  have  moulded  all  these 
plants  and  animals  in  the  rocks,  or  to  show  that  they 
are  not  real,  or  that  they  were  created  in  the  rocks 
where  we  now  find  them ;  but  let  us  remember  one 
thing — that  argument  can  never  controvert  facts. 
Galileo  was  compelled  by  arguments  of  force  to  recant 
his  theory  of  the  universe,  but  the  facts  remained  the 
same;  and  each  rising  sun  reiterates  the  same  truth, 
which  some  of  his  time  would  fain  have  argued  out 
of  existence. 

It  matters  not  what  our  mere  opinions  are  about 
the  records  in  the  rocks,  so  far  as  regards  their 
truthfulness, — miles  of  strata  filled  from  the  bottom  to 


CONCLUDING   EEMAEKS.  277 

the  top  with,  animals  of  different  races,  that  crawled 
on  the  bottom  of  ancient  oceans,  or  darted  through 
their  waters,  or  flew  above  them,  or  basked  on  the 
shores  of  estuaries,  or  swam  the  rivers,  or  roamed 
over  the  land,  or  winged  their  way  through  the  air, — 
exist  as  an  incontrovertible  fact. 

If  such  be  the  testimony  of  the  rocks,  we  may  safely 
aver  that  it  is  not  contradicted  by  the  Bible ;  for  have 
not  the  volume  of  Nature  and  the  volume  of  Inspira- 
tion the  same  Great  Author  ?  The  greatest  scholars 
of  the  present  time  are  fully  satisfied  that  the  Bible 
does  not  fix  the  age  of  the  earth ;  and  that  the  word 
which  is  translated  day  does  not  always  mean  a  period 
of  twenty-four  hours,  nor  always  even  the  same 
amount  of  time,  as  may  be  readily  proved  by  referring 
to  the  different  places  where  it  is  used. 

We  may  then  regard  the  word  day  as  used  in  the 
first  chapter  of  Genesis  as  representing  a  period  of 
time  of  great  length ;  this  interpretation  is  demanded 
by  the  records  which  God  has  given  us  in  the  volume 
of  Nature, — in  the  rocks ;  and  there  is  nothing  in  the 
Bible  to  forbid  it. 

If  we  regard  the  six  days  mentioned  in  Genesis  as 
representing  successive  long  periods  of  time,  the 
apparent  difficulty  disappears,  and  the  records  agree 
in  all  their  essential  features.  How  preposterous  the 

idea   that   there   is    any   conflict   between    the    two 
24 


278  CONCLUDING  EEMAEKS. 

records !  Not  less  so  is  the  attempt  to  set  either  aside, 
by  denying  its  true  interpretation. 

Another  great  truth  which  geology  and  connected 
sciences  clearly  reveal,  is,  that  everything  in  nature 
is  built  upon  a  plan. 

This  truth  is  the  more  plainly  seen  and  felt,  the 
more  the  facts  of  nature  are  studied  in  their  natural 
relations.  There  is  no  such  thing  as  an  isolated  fact 
in  the  physical  world.  Each  connects  itself  with 
another,  and  all  are  necessary  to  a  perfect  whole. 
To  study  facts  of  nature  separately  is  one  thing ;  to 
study  them  in  their  true  relations  is  quite  another. 
In  one  case,  we  are  learning  the  alphabet ;  in  the 
other,  we  are  reading  the  sublimest  truths  which  that 
alphabet  can  be  used  to  express. 

So  far  as  we  study  the  facts  of  nature  in  their 
natural  relations,  and  understand  their  true  signifi- 
cance, so  far  do  we  become  acquainted  with  the 
thoughts  of  the  Author  of  Nature  ere  creation  began ; 
for  nature  is  but  a  full  and  tangible  expression  of 
those  thoughts  which  were  matured  in  the  Divine 
Mind  before  the  foundation  of  the  world. 

The  beautiful  chemical  combinations  of  elements, 
the  mathematical  exactness  of  crystallized  mineral 
forms,  the  structure  and  growth  of  plants,  the  animal 
kingdom  as  it  now  appears  on  the  earth,  exhibit 
forethought, — they  reveal  a  plan.  And  in  the  suc- 
cession of  animal  life  upon  our  globe,  a  plan  is 


CONCLUDING   REMARKS.  279 

revealed,  "  grand  in  its  outlines,  and  beautiful  in  its 
execution." 

Geology  shows  that  the  earth,  during  those  long 
periods  that  rolled  away,  while  it  was  passing  from  a 
state  of  chaos  to  the  delightful  garden  we  now  find  it, 
was  inhabited  by  races  of  animals  exactly  suited  to 
its  condition. 

No  fact  in  geology  is  better  established  than  that 
there  has  been  a  succession  of  races  of  animal  life 
upon  the  earth,  each  higher  in  rank  than  the  pre- 
ceding. We  find  higher  orders,  and  in  some  of  the 
branches  higher  classes,  as  we  pass  from  the  earliest 
to  the  latest  life-periods  of  the  globe. 

We  find  that  all  these  races  have  been  built  upon 
certain  plans.  Kadiates,  Molluscs,  Articulates,  and 
Vertebrates,  are  the  four  Types  after  which  all  the 
animals,  both  of  the  present  and  the  past,  have  been 
built. 

Geology,  then,  shows  that  there  is  no  such  thing  as 
the  development  of  lower  species  into  higher.  It  has 
been  a  favorite  notion  with  many  people,  and  some 
philosophers,  that  the  higher  animals  are  only  the 
results  of  continued  improvements  on  the  lowest  form 
of  life.  Our  science  shows  this  notion  to  be  entirely 
false.  Animals  of  the  four  great  Types  appeared 
upon  the  earth  in  profusion  simultaneously.  Hence 
neither  branch,  nor  type,  could  be  developed  from 
another. 


280  CONCLUDING   REMARKS. 

Upon  the  great  plan  wrought  out  in  the  Divine 
Mind  the  successive  races  have  appeared.  Each 
succeeding  race  bears  the  impress  of  the  original  idea, 
yet  it  is  an  entirely  new  creation.  Nature  has  not 
repeated  herself,  but  everywhere  is  the  greatest  diver- 
sity consistent  with  unity. 

If  we  look  at  the  Branch  of  Vertebrates,  the  highest 
of  the  animal  kingdom,  we  find  it  represented  in  the 
earliest  ages,  by  the  lowest  class,  Fishes.  Ages  later, 
Keptiles  are  introduced;  later  still,  Birds  are  added; 
and  in  the  Tertiary  the  true  Mammals  make  their 
appearance;  and,  last  of  all,  Man  appears  upon  the 
earth ;  yet  the  plan  was  unaltered  during  all  these 
changes,  and  remains  the  same  to-day,  as  when  Grod 
spoke  life  into  existence.  The  great  idea  which  found 
its  highest  expression  in  Man,  was  shadowed  forth  in 
the  earliest  paleozoic  fishes. 

How  significant  these  facts!  The  race  of  Verte- 
brates did  not  end  with  fishes,  nor  reptiles,  nor  birds, 
nor  mere  mammals,  but  with  Man.  The  highest  ex- 
pression possible  upon  the  Vertebral  plan  had  not 
been  made  till  the  introduction  of  him  whom  God 
created  in  His  own  image ! 

The  great  plan  of  the  Creator  is  still  farther  re- 
vealed, when  we  consider  the  wonderful  provisions 
He  has  made  for  the  benefit  of  His  creatures;  and 
especially  for  man,  His  last  creation ;  and  not  a  plan 
only,  but  Divine  Benevolence  is  strikingly  exhibited, 


CONCLUDING   REMAKES.  281 

and  to  a  degree  excelled  only  by  that  presented  in  the 
GIFT  which  was  made  as  a  provision  for  man's  imma- 
terial and  higher  nature. 

Who  reflects  upon  the  wonderful  supply  of  all 
those  materials  so  useful  and  necessary  in  the  various 
pursuits  of  life,  and  is  not  fully  convinced  that  the 
earth  has  been  going  through  a  long  series  of  changes, 
preparatory  to  the  reception  of  man  ? 

The  earth  was  filled  with  rocks,  and  metals,  and 
treasures  necessary  for  man's  use,  ages  before  he 
was  created.  The  vast  storehouse  of  fuel,  in  the  form 
of  coal,  which  is  now  locked  up  in  the  earth,  subject 
to  the  demands  of  human  labor,  floated  in  the  atmo- 
sphere of  an  age  long  since  past.  At  that  age,  neither 
man  nor  any  land  animal  could  exist,  as  the  air  was 
charged  with  a  deadly  gas. 

The  carbonic  acid  might  have  been  swept  away  by 
a  single  stroke  of  the  Divine  Hand,  but  a  great  plan 
was  to  be  fulfilled ;  the  earth  was  to  become  the  home 
of  man,  and  this  carbon  was  to  be  preserved  for  his 
use.  The  vegetation  secured  the  carbon;  and  thus 
the  air  was  purified.  The  vegetation  became  entombed 
in  the  bosom  of  the  earth,  and  after  slumbering  there 
for  untold  centuries,  comes  to-day  to  benefit  and  bless 
mankind. 

This  carbon  was  buried  far  beneath  the  rocky 
strata ;  but  the  rocky  covering  of  the  earth  has  been 
broken,  and  its  treasures  brought  within  the  reach  of 


282  CONCLUDING   REMARKS. 

human  industry.  Every  page  of  geologic  history 
unfolds  the  wonderful  provision  which  the  Author  of 
Nature  made  for  the  advent  of  His  last  creation. 

In  a  proper  contemplation  of  the  facts  registered  in 
the  crust  of  the  earth,  what  a  field  opens  before  us ! 
We  begin  to  see  how  vast  are  the  works  of  God.  The 
mind  seems  to  run  back  through  the  long-slumbering 
ages,  and  note  the  changes  our  planet  has  undergone. 
It  gets  a  glimpse  of  the  scenes  as  they  passed  in  the 
slow,  yet  ever  revolving  centuries.  We  get  a  faint 
view  of  the  Great  Plan  the  Author  of  Nature  has 
made  and  carried  out.  A  world  of  disorder  is  trans- 
formed into  one  of  life  and  beauty  ;  peopled  at  differ- 
ent stages  of  its  existence  with  beings  suited  to  its 
condition;  improved  with  each  successive  change, 
until  it  is  as  a  delightful  garden,  where  the  fragrance 
of  flowers  sweetens  every  breeze,  and  crystal  streams 
flow,  whose  ascending  vapors  make  green  the  over- 
hanging branches,  where  sweet  warblers  sing  from 
fullness  of  joy ; — when  Man  is  created,  endowed  with 
those  god-like  powers  and  faculties  which  enable 
him  to  fathom  the  past  to  some  extent,  to  comprehend 
and  enjoy  the  present,  and  to  look  forward  with  bright 
anticipations  to  the  GEEAT  FUTURE. 


GLOSSARY. 


GLOSSARY 


OF  SCIENTIFIC  TERMS  OCCURRING  IN  THE  TEXT  OF  THIS 
WORK. 

[It  will  be  observed  that  the  arrangement  adopted  in  the  Glossary  pre- 
sents, first,  after  the  word  itself,  its  pronunciation;  secondly,  its  etymo- 
logy ;  thirdly,  its  signification.] 

A. 

AcALEPHSj  ac'-d-leefs — etym.,  axaA^iy,  ac-a-lee' '-fee,  nettle — 
marine  animals  which  cause  a  stinging  sensation  when 
touched  by  the  hand. 

ACEPHALS,  a-sef'-als — etym.,  a,  without,  and  xsyafy,  kef'-a-lee, 
head — headless  molluscs,  as  the  clam  and  oyster. 

ACICULAR,  a-sic'-u-lar — etym.,  acus  (a'-cws),  needle — needle- 
shaped. 

ACROGENS,  ac'-ro-jens — etym.,  ax/?o<j,  ac'-ros,  top,  and  YSV°S) 
gen'-osj  growth — growing  at  the  extremity. 

ACTINIA,  ac-tin'-e-a, — etym.,  axrtv,  ac'-tin,  ray — animals  hav- 
ing a  circle  of  tentacles,  like  rays,  around  the  mouth, 
as  the  sea-anemone  (a-nem'-o-ne). 

ACTINOID,  ac' -tin-oid — etym.,  dxrw,  ac'-tin,  ray,  and  stdos, 
f-dosy  form — like  an  Actinia. 

ACTINOLITE,  ac-tin' -o-lite — etym.,  axrtv,  ac-tin,  ray,  and  hOos, 
li'-thosj  stone — green  hornblende. 

AGATE,  acj' -ate — etym.,  ^a^a-ny?,  ga-ga'-tees — a  semi-pellucid, 
uncrystallized  variety  of  quartz,  of  varied  tints  arranged 
in  stripes  or  clouds.  It  is  used  for  seals,  cups,  &c., 


286  GLOSSARY. 

and  is  named,  according  to  some,  from  the  stream  in 
Sicily  on  whose  banks  it  was  found. 

ALABASTER,  al-a-bas'-ter — etym.,  akafiaa-cpov,  al-a-bas'-tron, 
a  variety  of  gypsum. 

ALBITE,  al'-blte — etym.,  albus,  white — a  variety  of  feldspar. 

ALCYONOIDS,  al'-se-o-noids — etym.,  afc,  hats,  the  sea,  xuw,  ku'-o, 
to  breed,  and  etdoz,  form — an  order  of  polyps. 

ALGJE,  aljee — plural  of  alga,  sea-weed — marine  plants. 

ALLUVIUM,  al-lu'-ve-um — compounded  of  ad,  to  or  on,  and 
luo,  to  wash — sandy,  earthy,  or  stony  matter,  washed 
away  from  its  original  place,  and  deposited  on  the  sur- 
face elsewhere. 

ALUMINA,  al-u'-me-na — etym.,  al-u'-men,  clay — oxyd  of  alu- 
minium. 

ALUMINIUM,  al-u-minr-e-um — etym.,  as  above — the  metallic 
base  of  clay. 

AMETHYST,  am'-e-thyst — etym.,  a/x£»9y<rro<?,  a-me-ihus'-tos,  not 
inebriating — a  species  of  quartz,  valued  for  jewellery, 
and,  in  ancient  times,  used  for  drinking  cups,  as  a 
supposed  protection  against  intoxication. 

AMMONITE — named  from  its  resemblance  to  the  horns  on  the 
statue  of  Jupiter  Ammon,  resembling  those  of  a  ram 
— a  genus  of  molluscous  animals  resembling  the  nau- 
tilus. 

AMYGDALOID,  a-mig'-dal-oid — etym.,  a/wyda^a,  a-mug' -da-la, 
an  almond,  and  etdos,  i'-dos,  form — minerals  imbedded 
in  trap  rock,  like  almonds  in  a  cake. 

ANALCIME,  an-al'-sim — etym.,  avaXxie;,  an-al'-kis,  weak — a 
zeolite,  giving  by  friction,  a  weak  electricity.  See 
ZEOLITE. 

ANDALUS^TE,  an-da-lu'-site,  a  silicious  mineral,  found  in  thick 
lamellar  forms,  or  in  rhombic  prisms.  The  name  is 
derived  from  Andalusia,  in  Spain,  where  it  was  first 
observed. 

ANELLIDES,  an-ef-e-deez — etym.,  annellus  (an-neC-us),  a  little 


GLOSSARY.  287 

ring — worms  whose  body  seems  to  be  composed  of  a 
succession  of  little  rings. 

ANGIOSPERMS,  an1 ' -je-o-sperms — etym.,  ay-ystov,  ang-gi'-on,  ves- 
sel, and  ff7rspfj.a,  sper-ma,  seed — plants  having  seed 
enclosed  in  a  pericarp.  See  PERICARP. 

ANOPHYTES,  an'-o-fites — etym.,  avw,  a'-no,  upward,  and  (puto, 
fu'-o,  to  grow — shooting  upward,  erect. 

ANOPLOTHERIUM,  an-o-plo-tlie'-re-um — etym.,  avoxhos,  an-op'- 
los,  unarmed,  and  Oyptov,  the'-ri-on,  wild  beast — a  fossil 
extinct  quadruped,  resembling  a  pig,  and  deficient  in 
claws,  hoofs,  horns,  or  other  means  of  defence. 

ANTENNAE,  an-ten'-nee — etym.,  antenna,  a  sailyard — the  horns 
of  insects,  resembling  somewhat,  in  form,  the  yards  of 
an  ancient  ship. 

ANTHRACITE — etym.,  a»0pa£,  an'-thrax,  coal — a  species  of 
mineral  coal. 

ANTIMONY,  an'-te-mo-ny — (etym.,  uncertain) — an  ore,  con- 
sisting of  sulphur  and  a  metallic  base. 

APATITE,  ap'-a-tite — etym.,  anaraaf,  ap-a-ta'-o,  to  deceive — 
native  phosphate  of  lime,  whose  deceptive  appearance 
has  often  caused  it  to  be  taken  for  other  minerals. 

APHIDES,  af'-e-deez — etym.,  aphis,  a'-fis,  plant-louse — minute 
insects  infesting  plants. 

APOPHYLLITE,  a-pof -fil-ite — etym.,  axta,  a'-po,  from,  and 
<puXXov,  ful'-lon,  leaf — a  mineral  occurring  in  pearly, 
laminated  masses,  or  in  square  .prisms,  and  easily 
broken  into  plates  or  leaves. 

AQUEOUS,  a'-que-us — etym.,  aqua,  water — pertaining  to  or 
caused  by  the  action  of  water. 

ARACHNIDS,  ar-ac'-nids — etym.,  dpa/vy,  ar-ac'-ne,  spider — an 
order  of  insects. 

ARENACEOUS,  a-re-na!-shus — etym.,  arena  (a-ree'na),  sand — 


ARGILLACEOUS,  ar-jil-a'-shus — etym.,  argilla  (ar-jil'la),  clay 

— clayey. 
ARGONAUT  A,  ar-go-naw'-ta—etym.,  Apyw,  ar'-go,  the  name 


288  GLOSSARY. 

of  an  ancient  mythological  ship,  and  VOLUT^,  naw-teez, 

sailor — a  cephalopod  to  which  the  name  Nautilus  has 

been  incorrectly  applied. 
ARRAGONITE,  ar'-ra-gon-ite,  a  variety  of  carbonate  of  lime, 

first  found  in  Arragon,  in  Spain. 
ARSENIC,  ar'-sen-ic — etym.,  apffevtxov,  ar-senr -e-con — a  grayish 

lustrous  metal,  whose  oxyd  is  the  well-known  poisonous 

substance. 

ASBESTUS,  as-bes'-tus — etym.,  a<r/5£0ro<r,  as-best-os,  inconsuma- 
ble— fibrous  hornblende,  which  resists  combustion. 
ASTEROID,  as'-ter-oid — etym.,  ^o-n^,  as'-teer,  star,  and  e:<5o<r, 

i'-dos,  form — a  star-shaped  polyp. 
ASTEROPHYLLITES,  as-ter-off '-e-lites — etym.,    dffryp,   as'-teer, 

star,  puMov,  ful'-lon,  leaf — fossils  resembling,  in  form, 

a  star-shaped  blossom. 
AUGITE,    aw'-jite — etym.,    tioyy,    aw-ge,     lustre — a    lustrous 

mineral,  found  in  volcanic  rocks. 

B. 

BARIUM,  bd'-re-um,  the  metallic  base  of  Baryta.  See 
BARYTA. 

BARNACLE,  bar-na-cle.     See  CIRRIPEDS. 

BARYTA,  bd-ri'-ta — etym.,  Papvq,  ba'-ruse,  heavy — the  heaviest 
of  the  earths. 

BASALT,  ba-saicU,  a  variety  of  trap  rock. 

BATRACHIANS,  ba-trd'-ke-ans — etym.,  ^arpa^oq,  bat' -ra-kos, 
frog — a  class  of  vertebrates,  including  the  frog,  &c. 

BELEMNITE,  be-lem'-nite- — etym.,  fietejjLvov,  be-lem'-non,  arrow 
or  dart — an  extinct  molluscous  animal,  having  a  long 
conical  bone,  resembling  somewhat  the  head  of  an 
arrow  or  dart. 

BERYL,  berr'-il — etym.,  fiypMos,  be-rul'-os, — a  mineral  occur- 
ring in  bluish  green  six-sided  prisms. 

BlMANA,  bi-md'-na — etym.,  bis,  twice  or  double,  and  manus, 
hand — two-handed  animals. 


GLOSSARY.  289 

BISMUTH,  a  metal  of  a  yellowish  white  color. 

BITUMEN,  bl-tu'-men — etym.,  bitumen,  pitch — mineral  pitch. 

BIVALVES,  bi'-valves — etym.,  bis,  twice  or  double,  and  valva, 
shell — molluscs  having  shells  which  are  composed  of 
two  pieces,  as  the  clam  and  oyster. 

BLENDE,  blend — etym.,  blenden  (German),  to  dazzle — a 
metallic  ore  often  found  in  brown  shining  crystals. 

BORACIC,  bo-rass'ic,  containing  borax,  the  substance  used  for 
soldering. 

BORON,  bo'-ron,  the  base  of  boracic  acid.     See  BORACIC. 

BOTRYOIDAL,  bot' -re-oid-al — etym.,  ftorpus,  bot'-ruse,  grape- 
cluster,  and  etdoq,  i'-dos,  form — shaped  like  a  bunch  of 
grapes. 

BOULDER,  bol'-der — etym.,  bowl,  to  roll — a  mass  of  rock 
moved  from  its  original  place  by  a  natural  process. 

BRACHIOPODS,  brack' -e-o-pods — etym.,  Ppa%wv,  bra'-ke-on,  arm, 
and  Truda,  poda,  feet — molluscs  with  members  serving 
the  double  office  of  prehension  and  motion. 

BROMINE,  bro'-min — etym.,  p pathos,  bro'-mos,  fetid— a  marine 
element  having  a  fetid  odor. 

BRYOZOA,  bri'-o-zo-a — etym.,  ftpuov,  bru'-on,  a  sea-moss,  and 
£toov,  zo'-on,  animal — molluscous  animals  of  a  low  grade, 
named  from  the  resemblance  indicated  in  the  term. 

C. 

CADMIUM,  cad'-me-um,  a  metal  found  in  carbonate  of  zinc. 
C^ECILIANS,    se-sil' '-e-ans — etym.,     ccecus,     blind — snake-like 

batrachians  with  very  small  eyes. 
CALC — etym.,  calx,  chalk,  lime — carbonate  of  lime. 
CALCAREOUS,  cal-ca' -re-om — etym.,  as  above — earth  or  stone 

containing  lime. 

CALCIUM,  caT-ce-um,  the  metallic  basis  of  lime.     See  CALC. 
CAMEO,  cam'-e-o — etym.,  cammeo,  originally,  camaieu    (ca- 

ma-yod),  shield — a  gem  or  shell  cut  in  relief,  named 

from  its  resemblance,  in  form,  to  a  shield. 
CAPSULE,  cap'-sule— etym.,  capsula,  cap'-su-la,  a   box — the 

seed  vessel  of  a  plant. 


290  GLOSSARY. 

CARBON — etym.,  carbo,  coal — the  principal  element  in  char- 
coal. 

CARBONIFEROUS — etym.,  carbo,  and  fero,  to  bear — strata  or 
rocks  abounding  in  coal. 

CARNELIAN,  car-ne' -li-an — etym.,  caro,  camis,  flesh — a  sili- 
cious  stone  of  a  flesh-red  tint,  used  for  seals. 

CARNIVORA,  car-niv'o-ra — etym.,  caro,  flesh,  and  voro,  to  de- 
vour— flesh-eating  animals. 

CELESTINE,  se-les'-teen  —  etym.,  ccelestis,  se-Ies'-tiss,  heavenly, 
or  pertaining  to  the  sky — a  mineral  so  named  from  its 
peculiar  tint. 

CENTIPEDES,  sent'-e-pedes — etym.,  centum  (sentum),  hundred, 
and  pedes,  pe'-dees,  feet — insects  with  many  feet,  but 
of  various  sizes. 

CEPHALOPODS,  sef'-al-o-pods — etym  ,  zs^a/hy,  7cef-al-ee,  head, 
and  KoSa,podfa,  feet — molluscous  animals  whose  organs 
of  motion  are  attached  to  the  head. 

CETACEA,  se-ta' '-she-a — etym.,  cete  (see'tee~),  whale — mammals 
including  and  resembling  the  whale. 

CHABAZITE,  chab'-a-zite — etym.,  %aftaZioq  (meaning  uncer- 
tain) a  zeolite  occurring  in  oblique  glassy  crystals. 

CHALCEDONY,  cal-sed'-o-ny — etym.,  Chalcedon,  cal'-se-don — 
an  uncrystallized,  translucent,  lustrous  species  of  quartz, 
of  whitish  color,  named  from  a  town  opposite  to  By- 
zantium, where  it  was  anciently  found. 

CHELONIAN,  ke-lo'-ne-an — etymv  xelajvy,  ke-lo'-nee,  tortoise  or 
turtle. 

CHIASTOLITE,  ki-as' -to-lite,  /taffros,  ki-as'-tos,  decussated  or 
crossed — a  beautiful  variety  of  andalusite,  presenting, 
when  cut,  the  form  of  a  Greek  cross. 

CHLORATE,  do' -rate — etym.,  %Xwpos,  do'ros,  green — a  com- 
pound of  chloric  acid  and  a  base.  Its  gas  is  of  a 
greenish  color. 

CHLORINE,  do'rinc,  chloric  gas.     See  CHLORATE. 

CHONDRODITE,  con'-dro-dite — etym  ,  %ovdpoq,  con'-dros,  a 
grain — a  brittle  mineral,  found  in  primary  limestone. 


GLOSSAKY.  291 

CHROMATE,  cro'-mate — etym.,  ^pw;j.a,  cro'-ma,  color — a  salt 
formed  by  chloric  acid  and  a  base.  See  CHROME. 

CHROME,  or  CHROMIUM,  cro'-me-um — etym.,  %pwfj.a,  cro'-ma. 
color — a  metal  so  called  from  the  beautiful  colors  which 
its  oxyd  imparts. 

CHRYSOBERYL,  cris'-o-ber-il — etym.,  xpuffoq,  cru'-sos,  gold, 
and  ftrjpu/Mov,  be-rul' -e-on,  beryl — a  yellowish  green 
gem. 

CHRYSOPRASE,  kris'-o-prase — etym.,  %puffoz,  cru'sos,  gold, 
and  xpaffov,  pra'-son,  leek — a  variety  of  quartz  of 
golden  green  or  leek  tint. 

CILIA,  sil'-e-a — etym.,  cilia  (sil'-e-a),  eye-lids  or  eye-lashes — 
the  hairy  filaments  on  vegetable  surfaces,  or  the  fila- 
ments projecting  from  animal  membranes. 

ClRRlPEDS,  sir'-rc-peds — etym.,  cirrus  (sir'-rus},  a  lock  of 
hair,  and  pecZes,  feet — animals  of  the  barnacle  kincl, 
with  long,  slender,  curling,  clasping  feet. 

CLINOMETER,  clirnom' -e-ter — etym.,  xAcv/o>,  d-i'-no,  to  lean,  and 
jjLsrpov,  met'-ron,  measure — an  instrument  for  measuring 
the  inclination  of  strata. 

COBALT,  co'bawlt — etym.,  Cobold,  the  name  of  a  fancied 
demon  of  the  mines — the  metal  of  this  name  is  used 
for  giving  a  permanent  deep  blue  color  to  glass. 

COLEOPTERA,  kol-e-op' -ter-a — etym.,  xoAeo?,  col'eos,  sheath, 
and  xrspov,  ter^on,  wing — insects  with  sheathed  or 
shielded  wings. 

CONCHOIDAL,  cong-coi' -dal — etym.,  concha,  concf-ca,  shell; 
and  etdoq,  f-dos,  form — shell-shaped. 

CONGLOMERATE,  con-glom' -er-ate — etym.,  con,  together,  and 
glomero,  to  heap — rock  formed  of  fragments  or  peb- 
bles conglomerated  and  cemented  by  other  rocky  mat- 
ter. 

CONIFER,  cdn'-i-fer — etym.,  conus,  cone,  and  fero,  to  bear — 
cone-bearing,  as  the  fir  and  pine. 

CORAL,  corr'-al — etym.,  xo/>^,  cor'-ee,  maiden,  and  aXq,  hah, 


292  GLOSSARY. 

the  sea — the  substance  secreted  within  the  tissues  of 
polyps,  and  constituting  their  skeletons. 

CORUNDUM,  co-run1 -dum, — a  Hindoo  word — adamantine  spar. 

CORYNE,  cor'-e-ne — etym.,  xopuvy,  cor'-u-ne,  club — a  genus  of 
jelly-fishes. 

CRETACEOUS,  cre-ta'-she-us — etym.,  creta,  chalk — chalk-like. 

CRINOIDS,  cri'-noids — etym.,  xpwov,  crif-non,  lily,  and  etdos, 
i'-dos,  form — polyps  having,  on  a  jointed  stem,  a  head 
resembling  in  form  that  of  the  lily. 

CRUSTACEAN,  crus-ta' '-she-an — etym.,  crusta,  crust  or  shell — 
articulates  with  a  shelly  covering,  as  the  crab,  &c. 

CRYOLITE,  cry'-o-lite — etym.,  xpooq,  cru-os,  cold,  and  hOo^, 
li'-thos,  stone — a  whitish  or  brownish  mineral  occurring 
in  foliated  masses,  and  obtained  in  Greenland. 

CRYPTOGAMIC,  crip-to-gam'-ic — etym.,  xponroz,  criip'-tos,  con- 
cealed, and  ya/j-os,  ga'-mos,  fructification — flowerless 
plants  whose  fructification  is  concealed,  not  apparent. 

CTENOPHOR/E,  ten-of'-o-rce — etym.,  xrevos,  ten'-os,  from  xrecc, 
ticc,  comb — an  order  of  jelly-fishes. 

CuRSORES,  cur-so'-reez — etym.,  cur  so  t  to  run  up  and  down — 
an  order  of  birds,  including  the  ostrich  and  the  like. 

CYCADS,  si'-cads — etym.,  xuxsw,  ku'-ke-o,  to  mix,  to  inter- 
mingle— fossil  plants  intermediate  between  palms, 
ferns,  and  pines. 

CYCLOIDS,  si'-doids — etym.,  xoxAos,  cu'-dos,  circle,  and  eidos, 
i'-dosj  form — fishes  with  roundish  scales. 

D. 

DATHOLITE,    datU'-o-Ute,   a   silicious   mineral,   occurring   in 

small  complex  glassy  crystals. 
DECAPODS,  deck-'a-pods — etym.,  dexa,  deck'-a,  ten,  and  noda, 

pod' -a,  feet — an  order  of  crustaceans. 
DEVONIAN,  de-vo'-ne-an,  the  system  of  rocks   named   from 

Devonshire,  England,  where  they  were  first  observed. 


GLOSSARY.  293 

DIBRANCHIATES,  di-brank' -e-ates — etym.,  dis,  dis,  double, 
and  0par%tovj  gill — cephalopods  which  have  two  gills. 

DICOTYLEDONS,  di-cot-e-U'-dons — etym.,  dis,  dis,  double,  and 
zo-utydov,  cot-u-U'-don,  seed-lobe — plants  having  two 
seed-lobes. 

DlNORNlS,  di-nor'-nis — etyni.,  deivoq,  di'-nos,  terrible,  huge, 
and  dpvts,  or'-nis,  bird — an  extinct  bird  of  gigantic 
dimensions. 

DINOTHERIUM,  di-no-the' -re-um — etym.,  Seivoz,  di'-nos,  terri- 
ble, and  (hjptovj  tlie'-re-on,  wild  beast — a  fossil  pachy- 
derm of  gigantic  size,  armed  with  enormous  tusks. 

DIOPSIDE,  di-op'-sid.     See  AUGITE,  of  which  it  is  a  variety. 

DISCOPHOR^B,  dis-cof '-o-re — etym.,  diffxos,  dis1 -cos,  disk  or 
coit,  and  <pepa>,  fer'-o,  to  bear — animals  having  the  form 
of  a  disk  or  plate. 

DODECAHEDRON,  dd-dec-a-ht'-dron — etym.,  Stodexa,  do'-de-cd, 
twelve,  and  idpa,  Jied'-rd,  base  or  side — twelve-sided. 

DOLOMITE,  doH-o-mite,  a  granular  magnesian  carbonate  of 
lime,  exemplified  in  many  species  of  white  marble. 
The  name  is  derived  from  the  eminent  French  geologist 
Dolomieu  (do-lo-myoo). 

E. 

ECHINODERMS,  e-kt-no-derms — etym.,  e/cvo?,  e-ki'nos,  hedge- 
hog, and  depict,  der'ma,  skin — radiate  animals  with 
an  integument  covered  with  spines  or  with  tubercles, 
as  the  sea-urchin,  or  the  star-fish. 

ECHINOIDS,  e-ki'-noids — etym.,  e/ivos,  e-Tci'-nos,  hedgehog, 
and  eidos,  form — polyps  with  a  spiny  coat. 

EDENTATA,  e-den-ta'-td — etym.,  e,  from,  and  dens,  tooth — 
animals  destitute  of  front  teeth. 

EMERALD — etym.,  (modern)  esmeralda,  and  (ancient)  snia- 
ragdus  (meaning  uncertain) — a  green-colored  precious 
stone. 
25* 


294  GLOSSARY. 

ENCRINITE,  en'-cre-nite — etym.,  ev,  in,  and  x/xvov,  7crif-non, 

lily — a  fossil  bearing  some  resemblance,  in  form,  to  a 

lily. 
ENDOGEN,  en'-do-jen — etym.,   ivdov,  end'on,  within  or  inside, 

and  7"£vo<r,  gen'-os,  growth — growing  on  the  inside  of 

the  stem. 

ENDOGENOUS,  en-doj'-e-nus.     See  ENDOGEN. 
ENTOMOSTRACA,    en-to-mos' -trd-cd — etym.,    £vro/j.a,  en'-to-md, 

insects,  and    offrpaxov,  os'-trd-con,    shell — crustaceous 

animals  related  to  insects. 
EOCENE,  e'-o-seen — etym.,  r/wz,  e'-ose,  dawn,  and  zatvoq,  Jci'-nos, 

recent — strata  whose  fossils  foreshow  the  existing  state 

of  the  animal  kingdom. 
EPIDOTE,  ep'-e-dote — etym.,  e7ridi8a>/j.t,  to  enlarge — a  silicious 

mineral,  occurring  in  lustrous  rhomboidal  prisms  of  a 

greenish  tint.     The  name  applies  to  the  enlargement 

of  the  base  of  the  primary  in  some  of  the  secondary 

forms. 
EQUISETACE^,  e-que-se-td'-she-ce — etym.,  e'-quus,  horse,  and 

stfta,  hair — resembling  horse-hair. 
EQUISETUM,  e-que-se'-tum — etym.,  e'-quus,  horse,  and  se'ta, 

hair — the  rush  called  "  horse-tail." 
EXOGEN,  ex'-o-jen — etym.,  e£w,  ex'-o,  without  or  outside,  and 

T'cvos,  gen'-os,  growth — growing  on  the  outside  of  the 

stem. 
EXOGENOUS,  ex-oj '-e-nous.     See  EXOGEN. 

F. 

FAHRENHEIT,  the  name  of  the  inventor  of  the  thermometer 
in  common  use,  and  applied  in  honor  of  him  to  that 
instrument. 

FAJJNA,  fawn' -a — etym.,  fauni,  ancient  rural  deities,  resem- 
bling, in  part,  the  lower  animals — the  animal  kingdom 
of  a  given  portion  of  the  globe. 


GLOSSARY.  295 

FLAMINGO,  flam-in '-<jo — etym.,  flamma,  flame — a   tropical 

bird  of  a  fiery  red  color. 
FELDSPAR,  or  FELSPAR — etym.,  fdd,  field,  or  fels,  rock,  and 

spar,  rafter — the  mineral  which,  along   with    quartz 

and  mica,  composes  granite  rock. 
FLORA — etym.,  flora,  the  mythological  goddess  of  flowers — 

the  vegetable    kingdom   of  a   given   portion   of  the 

globe. 
FLUOHYDRIC,  or  HYDROFLUORIC,  flu-o-lil'-dric,  hi-dro-flu-or'- 

ic — etym.,  udwp,  hu'-dore,  water,  and  fluor  (flu'-or^ — 

an  acid  obtained  from  fluor-spar. 
FLUOR-SPAR,  flu'-or-spar — etym.,  fluo,    to   flow,  and    spar, 

rafter — fluorid  of  calcium,  a  beautiful  mineral,  used 

for  ornamental  vessels,  &c. 
FLUORID,  flu!-or-id — etym.  as  above — a  compound  of  fluorine, 

with  a  metallic  base. 

FLUORINE,  flu'-or-in — etym.  as  above — a  gaseous  element. 
FOLIATED,  fo'-le-a-ted — etym.,  folium,  leaf — in  leaves,  leaved. 
FORAMINIFERA,  for-am-in-if'-er-a — etym.,  foramen  (fdr-af- 

meii),  opening,  and  fero,  to  bear — shells  whose  cham- 
bers are  united  by  a  small  opening  or  perforation. 
FOSSIL — etym.,  fossilis  (fos'-sil-is),  that  which  may  be  dug 

up — remains  of  plants  or  animals,  buried  in  earth  or 

rock,  and  found  by  digging. 
FOSSILIFEROUS,  fos-sil-if'-er-ous — etym.,  fossilis  (see  above), 

and  fero   (fe'-ro),   to  bear — applied  to  rocks  which 

contain  fossils. 
FUNGUS — plural,    fungi;     adjective,   fungous — mushroom, 

mushroom-like. 


G-. 

GALENA,  ga-lee'-na — etym.,  yalsco,  ga'-le-o,  to  shine — lead. 
GANQIDS,  gan'oids — etym.,  ^avo<r,   gan'-os,   brightness,  and 
,  i'-dos,  form — fishes  with  bright  angular  scales. 


296  GLOSSAKY. 

GARNET — etym.,  granatus  (gran-a'-tus},  granular,  resembling 

the  pomegranate — a  silicious  mineral,  found  in  beauti- 
ful, variously-colored  twelve-sided  crystals. 
GASTEROPODS,  gas'-ter-o-pods — etym.,  ^aer-ny/?,  gas'-teer,  belly, 

Tzoda,  pod' -a,  feet — animals  which  creep  on  the  lower 

surface  of  the  body,  as  the  snail. 
GEOV~E,jee'-ode — etym.,  ^eto^s,  ge'-o-des,  resembling  the  earth 

in  form — a  nodule  of  stone  containing  crystals  in  its 

cavity. 
GEOLOGY,  je-ol'-o-jy — etym.,  -p)}  ge,  or  ^ea,  ge'-a,  earth,  Aoyos, 

log' -os,  discourse  or  science — science  of  the  earth. 
GLACIER,  glace' -yer,  gla! -slier,  gld'-ceer,  glass' -yer,  or  glass'-yay, 

but  never  properly  gld-ceer1,  or  glazier  (the  latter  a 

very  common  error) — etym.,  glace  (glass),  ice — Alpine 

accumulations  of  ice  and  snow. 
GLUCINA,  glu-sl'-na — etym.,  ^Ayxt><?,  glu'-kus,  sweet — oxyd  of 

glucinum,  the  salts  of  which  have  a  sweet  taste. 
GNEISS,  gnice  —  German  word  —  a  rock  resembling  granite 

in  its  composition,  but  differing  in  being  stratified. 
GRALL^E,  gral'-lee — etym.,  grallce,  stilts — waders,  long-legged 

fowls  which  wade;  and  pick  up  their  prey,  in  shallow 

water. 
GRANITE,  gran'-it — etym.,  granum  (gra'-num*),  grain — rock 

composed  of  quartz,  feldspar,  and  mica,  and  having  a 

granular  or  grainy  appearance. 
GYMNOSPERMj/iW-wo-sperm — etym.,  yu/j.vos,  gum'-nos,  naked, 

and    <T7T£/?/jtoc,    sper'-ma,   seed — not   having   the   seed 

enveloped. 
GYPSUM,  jip'-sum — etym.,  yo(J>os,guj}f-sos,  chalk — sulphate  of 

lime. 

H. 

HELIOTROPE,  lie' -le-o-trope — etym.,  yfaoq,  the  sun,  and  rpor^, 
tro'-pee,  turning — a  variety  of  rhomboidal  quartz. 

HELMINTH,  hel'-minth — etym.,  H^ivs,  hel'-mins,  worm — an 
intestinal  worm. 

HEMATITE,  licm'-a-tite — etym.,  dt/j.a,  M-ma,  blood — a  reddish 


GLOSSARY.  297 

mineral,  specular  iron  ore,  or  the  brownish  hydrated 

oxyd  of  iron. 

HETEROCERCAL,  het'-cr-o-serc-al — etym.,  irepo~,  het'-er-os,  dif- 
ferent, and  xepxos,  kerk-os,  tail — applied  to  fishes  with 

unequal  lobed  tails. 
HETEROPODS,  hef-er-o-pods — etym.,  Irspoz,  het'-er-os,  other, 

and  xoda,  pod' -a,  feet — molluscs  whose  foot  serves  as 

a  fin. 
HEULANDITE,    hu'-land-ite,   a   silicious    mineral,    named   in 

..  honor  of  Heuland,  a  European  savant. 
HEXAGONAL,  hex-ay' -o-nal — etym.,  £*,  hex,  six,  and  fwia, 

go'-ne-a,  angle — six-sided  and  six-angled. 
HIPPOPOTAMUS,   hip-po-pot' -d-mus — etym.,    fr-oc,   hip'-pos, 

horse,  and  nora/uos,  pot'-a-mos,  river — a  huge  animal 

frequenting  rivers  and  their  margins. 
HOLOTHURIOIDS,  lwl-o-thuf-re-ouh — etym.,  tiXoOoupioy,  Jiol-o- 

thou'-rl-on — an  order  of  echinoderms. 
HOMOOERCAL,  ho' -mo-serc' -al — etym.,  <fyto$,  hom'-os,  the  same, 

and  xspxoz,  Jeertf-os,  tail — applied  to  fishes  with  equal 

lobed  tails. 
HOMOLOGY,  ho-mol'-o-jy — etym.,  J/aoc,  hom'-os,  the  sanie;  and 

Aoyozj  fay* -os,  proportion — affinity  of  structure. 
HORNBLENDE,  horn' -blend — etym.,  horn,  horn,  and  blenden, 

to  dazzle  or  shine — a  mineral  in  the  form  of  crystals 

or  masses,  of  all  colors,  but  more  frequently  black. 
HYACINTH,  hi'-a-sinth,  a  variety  of  zircon,  of  a  reddish  or 

hyacinthine  tint. 
HYDRA,  hi'-dra — etym.,  vdwp,  hu'-dore,  water — a  genus  of 

freshwater  polyps. 
HYDROGEN,   hi'-dro-jen — etym.,    v8ajp,   hu'-dore,  water,    and 

Y^vaco,   gcn'-a-o,    to    produce — the    gaseous    element 

which,  united  with  oxygen,  forms  water. 


298  GLOSSARY. 

HYDROIDS,  Uf-droid& — etym.,  bdtop,  liu'-dore,  water,  and 
i'-dos,  form — an  order  of  Acalephs. 


I. 

ICHNOLOGICAL,  ic-no-lqf -ic-al — 9fV6><r,  ic'-nuse,  footstep,  and 
kayos,  log'-os,  discourse — pertaining  to  the  science 
which  treats  of  fossil  foot-prints. 

ICHTHYOSAURUS,  ic-the-o-saur'-us — etym.,  9f0o<?,  ic'-thuse,  fish, 
and  ffaupa,  saw'-ra,  lizard — a  gigantic  marine  fossil 
animal,  intermediate  between  a  crocodile  and  a  fish. 

IDOCRASE,  id'-o-crase — etym.,  idea,  id'-e-a,  form,  and  xpa<n$, 
cra'-sis,  mixture — a  silicious  mineral,  occurring  in 
square,  yellowish,  or  brownish  prisms. 

IGNEOUS,  ig'-ne-us — etym.,  ignis,  fire — caused  by  the  action 
of  fire". 

IGUANODON,  ig-wan'-o-don,  a  huge  fossil  saurian,  resembling 
the  iguana  (^ig-wa'-na),  of  the  existing  race. 

INDICOLITE,  in' -di-co-lite — etym.,  indicum  (in' -die-urn), 
indigo,  and  XtOoq,  H'-thos,  stone — a  variety  of  tourma- 
line, of  an  indigo  tint. 

INFUSORIA,  in-fu-zo'-re-a — microscopic  animals,  inhabiting 
liquids. 

IODINE,  i'-o-din — etym.,  twdyq,  i'-o-dees,  resembling  a  violet — 
a  substance  obtained  from  marine  plants.  Its  vapor  is 
of  a  beautiful  violet  color. 

IOLITE,  i'-o-lite — etym.,  tov,  i-on,  violet,  and  hOoq,  li'-thos, 
stone — a  glassy-looking  mineral,  showing  in  one  direc- 
tion a  brownish,  in  another,  a  violet  tint. 

INSECTIVORA,  in-sect-iv'-o-ra — etym.,  in,  into,  scco,  to  cut  or 
divide,  and  voro,  to  devour — animals  that  prey  on 
insects. 

IRIDESCENCE,  ir-e-des'-cence — etym.;  Iris,  rainbow — coloring 
like  the  rainbow. 


GLOSSARY.  299 

K. 

KAOLINE,  ca'-o-lin — the  Chinese  term  for  potter's  clay. 
KYANITE,  ki'-an-ite — etyni.,  xuavog,  ku'-an-os,  azure — a  sili- 
cious  mineral;  found  in  thin  crystals  of  a  bluish  tint. 


L. 

LAMELLA  (plural;  lamella;') — etymv  la-mel'-la,  a  thin  plate  or 
scale. 

LAMELLIBRANCHIATES,  la-mel-e-brank'-e-ates — etym. ,  lamel- 
la, plate,  and  fipay%tov,  brank'-e-on}  gill — having  the 
gills  in  lamellae. 

LAMINATED,  lam'-in-a-ted — etym.,  lamf-in-a,  plate — consist- 
ing of  plates,  or  very  thin  layers. 

LAUMONITE,  efflorescent  Zeolite,  a  mineral  named  from  its 
-  discoverer. 

LEPIDODENDRON,  lep-e-do-den'-dron — etym.,  As-^,  lrpf-is, 
scale,  and  dsvdpov,  den'-dron,  tree — a  scaly-barked 
fossil  plant  found  in  coal-beds. 

LEPIDOLITE,  lep-id? -o-lite — etym.,  h-iq,  lep'-is,  scale,  and 
hO as,  li-thos}  stone — a  scaly  species  of  mica  of  lilac 
tint. 

LIAS,  ll'-as — etym.,  li'-as,  a  provincial  English  word  for  layer. 

LICHEN,  I? -ken — etym.,  Aez/ijv,  li'-keen,  rock-moss,  or  tree- 
moss. 

LIGNITE — etym.,  lignum,  wood — mineral  coal,  of  woody  tex- 
ture. 

LIMULIS,  lim'-u-lus — etym.,  limus,  sideways — a  genus  of  crus- 
taceans including  the  horse-shoe  crab. 

LITHIA,  lith'-e-a — etym.,  faOoq,  li'-tlios,  stone — an  alkali  found 
in  petalite,  &c. 

LITHODOMOUS,  le-thod' -o-mus — etym.,  hOoq,  li'-tlios,  stone, 
and  ds/j.0),  dem'-o,  to  build — applied  to  molluscs  which 
form  holes  in  solid  rocks. 


300  GLOSSAKY 


LODESTONE,  lode' -stone — etym.,  Iced,  to  lead,  and  "  stone" — an 
oxyd  of  iron  possessing  polarity. 


M. 

MADREPORE,  mad' -re-pore — etym.,  madre,  ma-dray,  spotted, 

and  pore — branching  coral. 
MAGNESIUM,  mag-ne' -zlie-um — etym.,  Magnesia,  the  name  of 

the  city  whence,  in  ancient  times,  that  substance  was 

obtained — the  metallic  base  of  magnesia. 
MALACHITE,  mal'-a-kite — etym.,  /j.cda%i],  mal'-a-kee,  mallows 

— carbonate  of  copper,  in  color  like  the  leaf  of  mallows. 
MAMMAL — etym.,   mamma,   breast — animals   which    suckle 

their  young. 

MANGANESE,  man'-gan-eez,  a  metallic  substance. 
MARSUPIALOIDS,  mar-sup' -e-al-oids.     See  MARSUPIALS. 
MARSUPIALS,  mar-sup' -e-ah — etym. ,  fj.apffu-tovy.mar-sup'-e-on^ 

purse  or  pouch — animals  having,  like   the  kangaroo 

and  opossum,  a  pouch  in  which  they  carry  their  young. 
MASTODON,  mas'-to-don — etym.,  //a<rroc,  mad-tos,  nipple,  and 

ddous,  od'-ous,  tooth — a  huge  fossil  animal  resembling 

the  elephant,  and  named  from  the  conical  protuberances 

on  the  surface  of  its  grinders. 
MEDUSA,  me~dur-zat  an  acaleph,  commonly  called  l(  sea-nettle," 

a  gelatinous  radiate  of  circular  form,  resembling  the 

figure  of  the  ancient  mythic  shield  embossed  with  the 

head  of  Medusa. 
MEGALOSAURUS,    meg-a-lo-saur' -us — etym.,    iJ-^aq,    rneg'-as, 

great,    and    aaopa,  saw'-ra,  lizard — a   gigantic    fossil 

amphibious  animal,  of  the  saurian  tribe. 
MEGATHERIUM,    meg-a-the' -re-um — etym.,    fj.£yas,    meg' -as, 

great,    huge,    and    Oyptov,    tlie'-re-on,    wild    beast — a 

gigantic  fossil  animal. 
MERGANSER,  mer-gans'-er — etym.,  mergo,  to  dive,  and  anser, 

goose — a  water-fowl  which  dives  for  its  prey. 


GLOSSARY.  301 

METAMORPHIC,  met-a-morf  r-ic — etym.,  juera,    met?-a,    trans, 

and   popyr),    morph'-ce,   form — rocks   transformed   or 

changed  by  heat  from  their  original  form  or  character. 
METEORITE,  me* -te-o-rite — etym.,  nsrewpog,  met-e^o'-ros,  lofty 

— a  metallic  or  earthy  body  falling  from  the  atmosphere. 
MICA,  mi'-ca — etym.,  mico,  to  shine — the  thin  shining  mineral 

miscalled  "  isinglass." 

MICACEOUS,  mi-ca'-she-us,  containing  mica.     See  MICA. 
MILLIPEDES,  mil '-le-pedes — etym.,  miUe  (jnil'lce)  thousand, 

andpcdes  (ptfdeez),  feet — many-footed  insects,  as  the 

wood-louse. 
MIOCENE,  mi'-o-seen — etym.,  ^ascov,  mi'-on,  less,  and  xatvoq, 

ki'-nos,  recent— rocky  strata,  a  minority  of  whose  fossil 

shells  are  referable  to  living  species. 
MOLLUSCA,  mol-lus'-ca — etym.,    mollis,    soft — animals  with 

soft  bodies. 
MOLYBDENUM,    mo-lib-dd-num — etym.,   jj.oXv/38awa}  mo-lub- 

dl'-na,  a  mass  of  lead — a  metal. 
MONOCOTYLEDONOUS,    mon-o-cot-e-le' -do-nus — etym.,    /JLOVOS, 

mon'-os,  single,  and  zoroArjdov,  cot-u-le' -don,  seed-lobe — 

plants  having  but  .one  cotyledon,  or  seed-lobe. 
MORAINE,  mo-rain',  the  loose  material  along  the  sides  and 

middle  of  glaciers. 
MOSASAURUS,    mo' -sa-saw-rus — etym.,  Mosa,   ancient   Latin 

name  of  the  town  of  Maestricht,  and  ffaupos,  saw'-ros, 

lizard — a  fossil  animal  named  from  the  place  where  it 

was  first  observed. 
MYRIOPODS,  mir' -e-o-pods — etym.,  ;j.opia,    mu'-re-a,    myriad, 

and  Tioda,  pod! -a,  feet — many-footed. 


N. 

NATATORES,  nat-a-tc?-recz — etym.,  natator,  na-ta'-tor,  swim- 
mer— water-fowl. 
26 


302  GLOSSARY. 

NATROLITE,  na'-tro-lite — etym.,  natron  (iia-trori}y  soda,  and 

hOosj  li'-thos,  stone — a  zeolite  containing  soda. 
NAUTILUS,    naw'-te-lus — etym.,    vaurdoq,     naw'-te-los    (from 

vauryq,    naw-teez,    sailor,    and     vau?,    naws,    ship) — a 

cephalopodous  mollusc. 
NEMATOIDS,  nem'-a-toids — ctym,,  v^(aa,  ne'-ma,  thread,  and 

e:floc,  i'-doSj  form— long,  slender,  thread-like  intestinal 

worms. 

NICKEL,  a  magnetic  metal  of  a  reddish  white  color. 
NITROGEN,    ni'-trd-jen — ^etym.,    vtrpov,    nl'-tron,    nitre,    and 

Ywaw,   gen*-a-o,  to    produce — the    principal    gaseous 

element  of  atmospheric  air. 
NITRATE,  n?-trate-^Qtym.,  vtrpov,  ni'-tron,  salt — a  salt  formed 

by  the  union  of  nitric  acid  with  a  base. 
NODULE,    worf'-wfc— etym.,    nodus,    knot,    lump — a   roundish 

mass  or  knob. 
NUMMULITES,    num'^-u-Utes — etym.,    nummus,    money,     and 

hOoq,  li'-tlios,  stone — fossil  molluscs,  shaped  like  coins. 


0. 

OCHRE,  o'-ker — -etym.,  w^/>o?,  o'-cros,  pale — colored  clay,  com- 
monly of  a  yellowish  tint. 

OCTAHEDRON,  oc' -td-he-dron — etym.,  oxrw,  oc'-to,  eight,  and 
£ dpa,  lied' -raj  base  or  side — eight-sided. 

ONYX,  o'-nix — etym.,  o'vuc,  o'-nukes,  nail  or  claw — a  variety 
of  chalcedony,  named  from  its  fancied  resemblance,  in 
tint  and  surface,  to  the  nail  or  claw  of  an  animal. 

OOLITE,  O'-o-lite — etym.,  wov,  o'-on,  egg,  and  hOoq,  li'-tlios, 
stone — limestone  in  rounded  particles  like  the  roe  or 
eggs  of  a  fish. 

OOLITIC,  o'-o-lit-ic.     See  OOLITE. 

OPHIDIAN,  o-fid'-e-an — etym.,  ofpis,  °ff'-is,  snake — an  animal 
of  the  snake  order. 


GLOSSARY.  303 

ORTHOCERA,  orth-oss'-e-ra — etym.,  opOoq,  orth'-os,  straight, 
and  xepas,  horn — fossil  cephalopods  with  straight 
shells. 

OXYD,  ox-id — etym.,  ofvc,  ox'-use,  sharp,  acid — the  combina- 
tion of  a  metal  with  oxygen. 

OXYGEN,  ox'-e-jen — etym.  as  above,  and  ^ciwaoj,  gen'-a-oy  to 
generate — the  atmospheric  element  which  supports  life, 
named  from  its  property  of  generating  acids. 


P. 

PACHYDERMS,  pack1 '-e-derms — etym.,  xa%os,  pa'-cusc,  thick, 
and  dspp.ay  der-ma,  skin — animals  distinguished  by  the 
thickness  of  their  skin,  as  the  elephant,  &c. 

PALEONTOLOGY, pal-e-on-tol' -o-(jy — etym.,  /ra/la:o?, pal-ay' -os, 
ancient,  ovra,  ont'-a,  beings,  and  Aoyos,  discourse  or 
science — the  science  of  organic  remains. 

PALEOTHERIUM,  pal-e-o-the'-ri-um — etym.,  xaAatoz,  pal-ay' - 
os,  ancient,  and  6rtpiov,  tlie'-re-on,  wild  beast — a 
gigantic  fossil  quadruped,  resembling  a  tapir  or  pig. 

PALEOZOIC,  pal' -e-o-zo-ic — etym.,  xaAatos, pal-ay* '-os,  ancient, 
and  £a>ov,  zo'-on,  animal — relating  to  fossil  remains  of 
animals  of  former  periods  of  the  earth's  history. 

PEDUNCLE,  pe-duncle' — etym  ,  pedunculus  (pe-dunc-u-lus)y 
foot  or  stem — flower-stalk. 

PEDUNCULATED,  having  a  stem. 

PENTACRINUS,  pentf-d-cri-nus — etym.,  rrevre,  pen'te,  five,  and 
xpwov,  kri'-non,  lily — a  fossil  named  from  its  penta- 
gonal (five-sided)  jointed  stem. 

PERICARP,  per'-e-carp — etym.,xept,perf-ri,  round,  and  xap-o$ 
kar'-pos,  fruit — applied  to  that  which  surrounds  the 
fruit  or  seeds. 

PERMIAN,  per'-me-an,  named  from  Perm,  in  Russia. 

PEROXYD,  per-ox'-id,  abounding  in  oxygen. 


304  GLOSSARY. 

PH.ENOGAMOUS,  fe-nog'-a-mous — etym.,  (paww,fi'-no,  to  shine 

or  show,  and  ya/j.oz,  gaf-mosy  fructification — flowering 

plants,  whose  fructification  is  apparent,  not  concealed. 
PHOSPHATE,  fos'-fate — etym.,  quas,  .fos,  light — a  salt  formed 

by  a  combination  of  phosphoric  acid  with  a  base. 
PHOSPHORUS,  fos'-fo-rus — etym.  as  above,  and  <p£pu>,fer'-o, 

to  bring — a  combustible  elementary  substance,  burning 

with  a  highly  luminous  appearance. 
PHYLLOPOD,  fiV-lo-pod,  or  PHYLLOPODA,  fil-op'-o-da — etym  , 

^y/Uov,  ful' -Ion,  leaf,  and  ~oda,  pod'-a,  feet — a  tribe 

of   crustaceans   whose   foot   has   the   flat   form   of  a 

leaf. 
PLACOIDS,  plac&f-oid* — etym.,  xXa.%,  plax,  plate,  and  stdoq, 

f-dos,   form — fishes   whose   covering    resembles   ena- 
melled plates. 
PLATINUM,  pldt'-e-num,  the   heaviest   of  metals,  and   of  a 

silvery  color. 
PLESIOSAURUS,  ples-e-o-sau'-rus — etym  ,    xhjffcoy,  ple'-si-dn, 

near,  and  ffaupa,  saw'-ra,  lizard — a  fossil  amphibian, 

resembling  the  saurian  or  lizard  tribe. 
PLIOCENE,  pli'-o-seen — etym.,  -lecov,  pli'-on,  more,  and  xarvo?, 

ki'-nos,  recent — rocks  of  the  tertiary  period,  the  largest 

part  of  whose  fossil  shells  are  of  recent  species. 
PLUMBAGO, phun-ba'-go — etym.,  plum-bum,  lead — improperly 

called  "  black  lead." 
POLYPS,  pol'-ips — etym.,  xoXos,polf-use,  many,  and  nous,  pous, 

foot — radiates  having  many  feet  or  tentacles. 
POLYTRICHIUM,  poZ-e-^ri/s'-e-z/m — etym  ,  7toXuq,poH-use}  many, 

and  rpixosj  tri'-kos,  hair — a  genus  of  mosses. 
PORPHYRY,  por'-fe-ry — etym.,  Kopyupa,  porf-u-ra,  purple — 

unstratified   rock,   containing   crystals  of  feldspar   or 

other  minerals.     The  term  was  originally  applied  to  a 

reddish  rock,  found  in  Egypt. 
POTASSIUM,  po-tas'-se-um — etym  ,  po'asse,  po-tass',  potash — 

the  metallic  base  of  pure  potash. 


GLOSSARY.  S05 

PRASE — etym.,  ~/>a<roy,  pra'-son,  leek — a  silicious  mineral,  of 
a  leek-green  color. 

PREHNITE,  prenf-ite,  a  pale  green,  lustrous  mineral,  of  singu- 
larly diversified  form;  named  from  its  first  importer 
from  Africa. 

PRISMATIC,  having  the  form  of  a  prism. 

PROTOXYD,  prot-ox'-id — etym.,  xpajroq,  pro'-tos,  first,  and 
o^us,  ox'-use,  sharp,  acid — a  combination  of  one  equi- 
valent of  oxygen  with  one  of  a  base. 

PROTOZOA,  pro' -to~zo-a — etym.,  -rrpioroq,  prtf-tos,  first  or  ele- 
mentary, and  C^oy,  animal  or  living  being — a  name 
sometimes  applied  to  the  infusoria. 

PTERODACTYL,  terr' -o-dac-tyl — etym.,  icrepav,  terr'-on,  wing, 
and  daxrulos,  dac'-tu-los,  finger — a  fossil  reptile,  some- 
what resembling  the  bat  in  form. 

PTEROPODS,  ter'-ro-pods — etym.,  r.rspov,  terr'-on,  wing,  and 
r.oda,  pod'-a,  feet — molluscs  with  organs  of  motion 
like  wings. 

PYRITES,  pe-ri'-teez — etym.,  TTW/J,  pur,  fire — a  metallic  ore, 
combining  sulphur  and  iron  or  other  metals.  The 
name  was  originally  given  from  its  emitting  sparks, 
when  struck  against  steel. 

PYROXENE,  pir'-ox-een — etym.,  ;ry/?,  pur,  fire,  and  C^vo?-, 
zen-os,  stranger.  See  AUGITE,  of  which  it  is  a  variety. 


Q. 

QuADRUMANA,   quawd-ru' -ma-na — etym.,  qnatuor   (quat?-u- 

or),  four,  and  manus  (ma'-nus),  hand — animals  having 

four  hands. 
QUARTZ,  quawrts,  pure  silex,  occurring  in  glassy,  six-sided, 

prismatic  crystals;  an  essential  constituent  of  granite. 

26*  U 


306  GLOSSAEY. 

K. 

RAPTORES,   rap-to'-reez — etym.,  rapio  (ra'-peo),  to   seize — 

raveners,  birds  of  prey. 
RASORES,    ra-zo'-reez — etym.,    rado    (m-cfo),    to    scratch — 

scratchers,  birds  which  find  their  food  by  scratching. 
RENIFORM,  ren'-e-form^—etym.,  renes  (re'-neez),  kidneys,  and 

forma,  form — shaped  like  the  kidneys. 
RHIZODONTS,  ri'-zo-donts — etym.,  pcZa,  ri'-za,  root,  and  odous, 

od'-ous,  odovroq,  o-dont'-os,  tooth. 
RHOMBOHEDRON,  rom'-bo-he-dron — etym.,  ponftoq,  rom'-bos, 

rhomb,  and  idpa,  he'-dra,  side — a  solid  contained  by 

six  equal  rhombic  planes. 
RODENTS,  ro'-dents — etym.,  rodo,  to  gnaw — animals,  like  the 

rat  or  squirrel,  whose  teeth  are  adapted  to  gnawing. 
ROTIFERA,  ro-tif'-er-a — etym.,  rota  (ro'-to),  wheel,  and/ero, 

to   bear — infusorial   animals  whose   cilia   move    in    a 

rotary  manner. 
RUBELLITE,    ru'-bel-ite — etym,,  rubrum,  red — a  red  species 

of  tourmaline. 
RUMINANTS,  ru'-min-ants — etyni.,  rumino,  to  chew  the  cud — 

animals  which  chew  the  cud. 
RUTILE,  ru'-til — etym.,  rutilus  (ru1 '-til-US'),  red — a  reddish  ore 

of  titanium. 


S. 

SAHLITE,  sd'-lite.     See  AUGITE,  of  which  it  is  a  variety. 

SALAMANDER,  sal'-a-man-der — etym.,  salamandra,  the  an- 
cient name  of  a  mythic  animal  supposed  to  be  capable 
of  resisting  fire — the  modern  popular  name  of  a  batra- 
chian  resembling  the  lizard  and  the  frog. 

SAPPHIRE,  saf'-fer — etym.,  Ga.-K<psipoq,  sap-fi'-ros,  supposed  to 
mean  smooth,  lustrous — pure  crystallized  alumina,  a 
mineral  of  a  bluish  tint. 


GLOSSARY.  3  Of 

SARD — etym.,  Zapda,  sard'-a,  Sardinia,  or  lapdiq,  sardis — a 
variety  of  chalcedony. 

SAURIAN,  saw'-re-an — etym..  sauros  (saw'-ros),  lizard;  resem- 
bling a  lizard. 

SCANSORES,  scan-so1 '-reez — etym.,  scando,  to  climb — climbers, 
as  the  woodpecker. 

SCAPOLITE,  scap'-o-lite — etym.,  <7xa7ro<r,scaf-p0s,rod,  and  hOot;, 
stone — a  silicious  mineral,  occurring  in  four  or  eight- 
sided  prisms,  terminated  by  low  pyramids. 

SELENITE,  sd'-en-ite — etym.,  ffefyv-q,  se-lef-nee,  moon — a  lami- 
nated, lustrous  gypsum,  so  called  from  its  partial 
resemblance  to  the  aspect  of  the  moon. 

SERPENTINE,  sei'-pen-tin — etym.,  serpens,  serpent — a  magne- 
sian  stone,  shaded  and  spotted  somewhat  like  a  serpent's 
skin. 

SHALE — etym.,  schale,  shale,  shell — a  fine-grained  slaty  rock. 

SIGILLARIA,  sij-il-d' '-re-a — etym.,  sigillum  (se-jil1 -lam) }  seal — 
fossil  trees  whose  bark  is  covered  with  impressions  as 
if  made  with  a  seal. 

SILURIAN,  sil-u'-re-an,  the  system  of  rocks  first  observed  in 
the  region  of  the  Si-lures  (sil-u'-reez^,  the  ancient 
.inhabitants  of  the  border  land  of  England  and  Wales. 

SlPHUNCLE,  slf'-unk-l — etym.,  siphon,  a  conducting  pipe — 
the  tube  which  runs  through  chambered  shells,  as  in 
the  nautilus. 

SODIUM,  so-de-um,  the  metallic  base  of  soda. 

SPAR — etym.,  spar,  bar  or  beam — any  lustrous  earthy  mineral 
which  breaks  with  regular  surfaces. 

SITU,  si'-tu  ("!N  SITU") — etym.,  situs  (s?-tus),  place — in 
place,  in  its  original  or  natural  situation,  not  trans- 
ported. 

SPATANGOID,  spat-ang' -gold — etym.,  <77rara^o<r,  spat-ang'- 
gos,  pail  or  vessel — a  sea-urchin,  so  named  from  its 
peculiar  shape. 


308  GLOSSAEY. 

SPATHIC,  spatli'-ic — etym.,  spaih,  slice  or  plate — in  laminae 
or  plates. 

SPECULAR — etym.,  speculum  (spcc'-u-lum),  mirror — having  a 
smooth,  reflecting  surface. 

SPHAGNUM — etym.,  sphagnum,  bog-moss. 

SPORE — etym.,  ffxopos,  spor-os,  sowing — the  part  of  flowerless 
plants  which  serves  instead  of  seeds,  as  the  specks  on 
the  back  of  the  fern  leaf. 

STALACTITE,  stal-acr -tite — etym.,  ffraXa^w,  stal-a'-zo,  to  drop — 
mineral  accumulations  formed  by  the  dropping  of  water, 
containing  lime  in  solution,  from  the  roof  of  a  cavern. 

STALAGMITE,  stal-ag'-mite,  ffTahayfj.oq,  stal-ag' -mos,  dripping, 
dropping — a  deposit  of  calcareous  or  other  matter, 
made  by  water  dropping  on  the  floor  of  a  cavern. 

STAUROTIDE,  staw' -ro-tide — etym.,  ffraopoq,  staw'-ros,  cross, 
and  s.t8oq,  form — a  silicious  mineral,  found  in  crystal- 
lized prisms,  sometimes  intersecting  each  other  at 
right  angles  or  in  the  form  of  a  cross. 

STEATITE,  ste'-a-tite — etym.,  ffreap,  ste'-ar,  fat — a  talcose  rock, 
composed  of  silica  and  magnesia.  It  feels  like  tallow  or 
soap  to  the  touch,  and  hence  its  common  name  "  soap- 
stone." 

STILBITE — ffriXftio,  stil'-bo,  to  shine — a  mineral  found  in 
amygdaloid  in  whitish  lustrous  crystals. 

STIGMARIA,  stig-ma'-re-a — etym.,  stigma,  mark  or  brand — 
plants  of  the  coal  period  having  curiously-marked  stems. 

STRIA,  stri'-a — etym.,  stria,  plural  strict,  scores  or  grooves • — 
regular  rows  of  scratches  on  the  surface  of  rocks. 

STRIATED,  scored,  grooved,  or  furrowed. 

STRONTIAN,  stron'-she-an — etym.,  Strontian,  stron'-slie-an,  in 
Argyleshire,  Scotland,  where  this  mineral  was  first 
found — a  heavy,  earthy  mineral,  of  whitish  color. 

STRONTIUM — etym.  as  above — the  metal  which  is  the  base  of 
the  above  mineral. 


GLOSSARY.  309 

STRATA,  stra!-ta — etym.,  stratum  (strfi'-tum),  spread  or  layer 
— earthy  or  rocky  matter  in  layers. 

SULPHATE,  sul'-fate — etym.,  sulphur — a  salt  formed  by  sul- 
phuric acid  combined  with  a  base,  as  sulphate  of  lime. 

SULPHURET,  sul-fu'-ret,  a  combination  of  sulphur  with  a  base. 

SYENITE,  si'-en-ite — etym.,  Syena  (si-e'-na),  a  region  of 
Egypt,  where  this  rock  was  early  observed. 


T. 

TABULAR,  tal'-u-lar — etym.,  tabula  (tab'-u-la},  table — of  flat 

surface. 
TALC,  talc — etym.,  talc,  tallow — a  smooth,  lustrous,  laminated, 

magnesian  mineral. 
TALCOSE,  talc'-osc — etym.,  talc,  tallow — containing  talc.     See 

TAL-C. 
TELLURIUM,    tel-u' -re-um — etym.,    Tellus,    earth — a    grayish 

metal,  combined  with  gold  and  silver  in  the  ores. 
TEREBRATULA,   ter-c-brat' -u-la — etym.,  tercbro,  ter'-e-bro,  to 

bore— a  genus  of  bivalve  molluscs  with  a  perforated 

shell. 
TESSELATED,  tes1 '-sel-a-ted — etym.,  tessda,  a  small  square  stone 

— checkered  or  divided  into  small  squares. 
TESTACEA,  tcs-ta'-she-a — etym.,  testa,  shell — animals  with  a 

shelly  covering. 
TETRABRANCHIATES,  tet-ra-brank'-e-atcs — etym.,  rsrpa,  tet'- 

ra,  four,  and  /fya^cov,  brank' '-e-on.  gill — cephalopods 

having  four  gills. 
TETRADECAPODS,  tet-ra-dec' -a-pods — etym.,  rer/>a,  tet'-ra,  four, 

dsxa,  deck'-a,  ten,  and  noSa,  pod'-a,  feet — so  called  in 

allusion  to  the  number  of  locomotive  appendages. 
THALLOPHYTES,  thai '-lo-fites — etym.,  OaMos,  thai' -Jos,  young 

branch,  and  (puw^fu'-o,  to  grow — a  class  of  flowerless 

plants. 
TITANIUM,  ti-ta'-ne-um,  a  metal  of  deep  blue  color. 


310  GLOSSARY. 

TOPAZ — etym.,  Topazios,  to-pd'-ze-os,  the  small  island  in  the 
Arabian  Gulf,  whence  the  ancients  obtained  the  pre- 
cious stone  of  this  name. 

TOURMALINE,  toor'-md-lin — etym.,  Tour' -ma-mal,  the  Cinga- 
lese name  of  a  mineral,  found  in  three  and  six- 
sided  prisms  of  various  colors,  and  much  valued  for 
jewellery. 

TRACHYTE,  tra'-Jdte — etym.,  rpayoq,  tra'-kuse,  rough — a  va- 
riety of  lava,  rough  to  the  touch. 

TRAP,  etym.,  trappe  (trap' -pay),  stair — a  rock  often  present- 
ing the  form  of  blocks  resting  on  each  other  as  the 
steps  of  a  stair. 

TRAPEZOHEDRON,  trap-e-zo-he'-dron — etym.,  rpaxs^iov,  trap- 
e'-ze-on,  table,  and  id  pa,  hed'-ra,  side — a  solid  bounded 
by  twenty-four  equal  and  similar  trapeziums. 

TREMATODS,  trem' -a-tods  —  etym.,  r/>y/a,  tre'-ma,  pore — 
worms  having  suctorial  pores.  ^» 

TREMOLITE,  trem'-o-lite,  white  hornblende. 

TRILOBITE,  tri'-lo-bite — etym.,  rpsis,  trice,  three,  and  Xoftos, 
lob' -os,  lobe — a  fossil  crustacean,  named  from  its  form. 

TUFA,  tu'-fa — etym.,  tufo  (tu'-fo),  porous — soft,  porous  stone; 
volcanic  rock  of  sandy,  earthy,  or  basaltic  material. 

TUNICATA,  tu-ne-cd'-ta — etym.,  tunica  (tu'-ne-ca),  coated — 
having  a  membranous  coating. 


Y. 

VERB-ANTIQUE,  verd-an-teek' — etym.,  viridis  (vir'-e-dis), 
green,  and  antiquus  (an-tir -qwus) ,  ancient — serpentine, 
also  a  greenish  porphyry,  of  a  tint  resembling  that  of 
the  green  incrustation  on  ancient  coins. 

VERTEBRAE,  ver'-te-bre — etym.,  verto,  to  turn — the  bony  joints 
enclosing  the  spinal  marrow;  parts  of  the  backbone. 

VERTEBRATES,  ver'-te-brates — etym.,  vertebrae  (ver'-te-brec'), 


GLOSSAEY.  311 

joints    of   the   spinal    column    or   backbone — animals 
having  such  a  column. 
VITREOUS,  vitf-re-ous — etym.,  vitrum,  glass — glassy. 


W. 

WEALDEN,  weel'-den — named  from  the  locality  in   England 
where  it  was  first  observed. 


Z. 

ZEOLITE,    zd-o-lite — etym.,    £sw,   ze'-o,  to   foam,  and 

lif-thos}  stone — a  family  of  minerals,  found  in  the 
cavities  of  amygdaloids,  &c.,  and- named  from  the 
appearance  which  they  exhibit  before  the  blow-pipe. 

ZIRCON — a  mineral  occurring  in  square  prisms,  with  pyramidal 
terminations. 

ZOOLOGY,  zo-ol'-o-gy — etym.,  £o>ov,  zo-on,  animal,  and  ^o^oc, 
locf-osy  discourse — the  science  which  treats  of  the  ani- 
mal kingdom. 

ZOOPHYTE,  zo'-o-fite — etym.,  £>ov,  zo'-on,  animal,  and  yurov, 
fu!-tori)  plant — a  term  applied  to  some  polyps,  from 
their  apparently  ambiguous  appearance,  resembling 
both  animals  and  plants. 


INDEX 


INDEX. 


Acalephs,  107. 

Acephals,  113. 

Acrogens,  95. 

Actinia,  104. 

Actinoids,  107. 

Actinolite,  40. 

Agate,  32. 

Alabaster,  43. 

Albite,  34. 

Alcyonoids,  107. 

Alluvium,  202. 

Aluminium,  25. 

Amazon  river,  225. 

Amethyst,  31. 

Ammonite,  176. 

Amygdaloid,  77. 

Andalusite,  46. 

Angiosperms,  93. 

Animal  kingdom,  102. 

Anophytes,  97. 

Anterior    members    of   vertebrates, 

120. 

Anthracite,  166. 
Anticlinal  axis,  86. 
Antiquity  of  the  earth,  268. 
Apatite,  45. 
Aquamarine,  54. 
Aqueous  agencies,  217. 
Arachnids,  119. 
Arsenical  iron  pyrites,  59. 
Articulates,  117. 
Asbestus,  40. 


Asteroids,  111. 
Atoll,  262. 
Augite,  41. 

Barnacles,  118. 

Basalt,  75. 

Basin,  Franconia  Notch,  223. 

Batrachians,  122. 

Bedford  Kavine,  222. 

Belemnites,  177. 

Beryl,  54. 

Bimana,  125. 

Birds,  123. 

Bituminous  Coal,  166. 

Bloodstone,  33. 

Botany,  14. 

Boulders  on  the  Jura,  234. 

Brachiopods,  114. 

Brahmapootra,  226. 

Branches  or  types,  103. 

Brontozoum,  173. 

Bryozoa,  113. 

Calamites,  158. 
Calcareous  marl,  261. 
Calcareous  tufa,  37. 
Calc  spar,  38. 
Carbon,  22. 
Carbonic  acid,  23. 
Carboniferous  coral,  163. 
Carboniferous  crinoids,  162. 
Carboniferous  fish,  164. 

(315) 


316 


INDEX. 


Carboniferous  molluscs,  163. 

Carboniferous  system,  155. 

Carnelian,  32. 

Carnivora,  125. 

Cause  of  volcanic  eruption,  251. 

Celestine,  44. 

Cephalopods,  115. 

Cetaceans,  125. 

Chalcedony,  32. 

Cbalk,  37. 

Chelonians,  123. 

Chemical  constitution  of  the  earth, 
20. 

Chemistry,  14. 

Chlorine,  22, 

Chondrodite,  50. 

Chromate  of  iron,  59. 

Chrysoprase,  32. 

Classes,  103. 

Classification  of  animals,  126. 

Classification  of  plants,  95. 

Classification  of  the  rock  forma- 
tions, 139. 

Clay  slate,  82. 

Clay-stones,  205. 

Club-mosses,  96. 

Coal  formation,  165.  . 

Coal  plants,  156-160. 

Composition  of  coral  reefs,  266. 

Concluding  remarks,  268. 

Conformable  strata,  86. 

Conglomerate,  83. 

Copper,  61. 

Copper  pyrites,  61. 

Coral,  104. 

Coral  island,  262. 

Coral  reefs,  261. 

Coral  reefs,  regions  of,  265. 

Coral  reefs,  composition  of,  266. 

Coral  reefs,  rate  of  growth  of,  266. 

Corundum,  50. 

Cotopaxi,  250. 

Cotyledon,  91. 

Crabs,  118. 

Cretaceous  cephalopods,  183. 

Cretaceous  echinoderms,  182. 

Cretaceous  system,  181. 

Crinoids,  110. 

Crinoid  from  St.  Louis,  133. 


Crustaceans,  117. 
Cryptogamous  plants,  95. 
Crystallography,  28. 
Ctenoids,  122. 
Ctenophorae,  110. 
Cursores,  124. 
Cuttle-fish,  116. 
Cycas,  93. 
Cycloids,  122. 

Days  of  creation,  277. 

Decapods,  118. 

Dendrite,  137. 

Density  of  the  earth,  17. 

Description  of  the  stratified  rocks, 

81. 
Description      of      the     unstratified 

rocks,  68. 

Development  hypothesis,  279. 
Devonian  acephals,  152. 
Devonian  corals,  151. 
Devonian  fishes,  154. 
Devonian  gasteropods,  122. 
Devonian  trilobites,  153. 
Diamond,  23. 
Dibranchiates,  116. 
Dicotyledons,  92. 
Dikes  at  Cohasset,  Mass.,  78. 
Dinornis,  207. 
Dip,  84. 

Discophorae,  108. 
Distribution  of  animals,  127. 
Distribution  of  plants,  99. 
Dolomite,  36. 
Drift,  192. 
Drift-wood,  260. 

Earth  as  a  planet,  16. 
Earthquakes,-  253. 
Echinoderms,  110. 
Echinoids,  112. 
Edentata,  125. 
Elements,  20. 
Emery,  51. 
Endogens,  94. 
Entomostraca,  117. 
Epidote,  49. 
Equisetaceae,  96. 
Etna,  243. 


INDEX. 


317 


Exogens,  91. 
Extinct  horse,  208. 

Families,  103. 

Faults,  87. 

Feldspar,  33. 

Ferns,  95. 

Fingal's  Cave,  76. 

Fishes,  121. 

Fluorine,  22. 

Fluor  spar,  45. 

Fool's  gold,  59. 

Foot-marks  of  Connecticut  Valley, 

170. 

Foraminifera,  115. 
Forward    members    of  vertebrates, 

120. 

Fossils,  132. 
Fossil  fruit,  186. 
Frost,  217. 
Fungi,  98. 

Galena,  60. 
Ganges,  226. 
Ganoids,  122. 
Garnet,  48. 
Gasteropods,  114. 
Gasteropoda  proper,  115. 
Genera,  103. 
General  statement,  13. 
Genessee  river,  218. 
Geodes,  30. 

Geological  changes,  216. 
Geological  range  of  animals,  213. 
Geological  range  of  plants,  212. 
Geology,  13. 
Geysers,  256. 

Glacier  of  Viesch,  231-232. 
Glaciers,  228. 
Gneiss,  81. 
Gold,  63. 

Graham  Island,  250. 
Grallse,  123. 

Granite  vein,  Williams'  Hill,  72. 
Granite,  68. 
Graphic  granite,  68. 
Great  Plan,  282. 
Greenland,  256. 
Greenstone,  74. 
27* 


Gymnosperms,  94. 
Gypsum,  42. 

Hardness,  scale  of,  27. 
Heavy  spar,  44. 
Herculaneum,  241. 
Heterocercal,  122. 
Heteropods,  115. 
Holothurioids,  113. 
Homocercal,  122. 
Hornblende,  40. 
Hornblende  slate,  82. 
Horse-shoe  crab,  118. 
Hyacinth,  56. 
Hydrogen,  21. 
Hydroids,  108. 

Icebergs,  234. 
Ichthyosaurus,  178. 
Ideal  section,  142. 
Idocrase,  48. 
Igneous  agencies,  239. 
Iguanodon,  184. 
Indicolite,  53. 
Infusoria,  127. 
Insectivora,  125. 
Insects,  119. 
Insessores,  124. 
lolite,  53. 
Irish  elk,  208. 
Iron,  56. 
Iron,  brown,  58. 
Iron,  magnetic,  57.    "   . 
Iron,  oxyd  of,  57. 
Iron  pyrites,  59. 
Iron,  spathic,  58. 
Iron,  specular,  57. 

Jasper,  33. 

Joints,  84. 

Jupiter  Serapis,  256. 

Jorullo,  244. 

Jura  Mountains,  284. 

Kaolin,  34. 
Kilauea,  246. 
Kyanite,  47. 

Lagoon,  262. 


318 


INDEX. 


Laminae,  84. 
Lamellibranchiates,  114. 
Lava,  2,52. 

Leaf  arrangement,  259. 
Lepidodendron,  159. 
Lepidolite,  35. 
Life  periods,  140. 
Limestone,  36. 
Lobster,  118. 

Madrepore,  107. 

Magnesium,  25. 

Malachite,  61. 

Mammals,  124. 

Man  produces  changes,  268. 

Marble,  37. 

Marsupials,  125. 

Mastodon,  209. 

Mauna  Loa,  246. 

Medusas,  108. 

Megatherium,  209. 

Metal,  a  native,  56. 

Metals  and  metallic  ores,  56. 

Metals  and  metalloids,  20. 

Metamorphic  rocks,  67. 

Mica,  35. 

Mica  slate,  81. 

Mineral,  a  simple,  26. 

Mineral  constitution  of  the   earth, 

26. 

Mineralogy,  14. 
Mississippi  river,  225. 
Modified  drift,.  203. 
Molar  of  elephant,  210. 
Molar  of  mastodon,  209. 
Molluscs,  113. 
Molybdenum,  62. 
Monkeys,  128. 
Moonstone,  35. 
Moraines,  Lateral,  230. 
Moraines,  Medial,  230. 
Moraines,  Terminal,  232. 
Myriopods,  119. 

Natatores,  123. 

Nature  has  not  repeated  herself,  280. 

Nautilus,  116. 

New  red  sandstone  system,  169. 

Niagara,  219. 


Nile,  225. 
Nitrogen,  22. 

Non-metallic  elements,  20. 
Nummulitic  limestones,  189. 
Nyoe,  249. 

Ocean  currents,  227. 
Old  red  sandstone,  150. 
Onyx,  32. 

Oolitic  cephalopods,  177. 
Oolitic  echinoderms,  176. 
Oolitic  reptiles,  177. 
Oolitic  system,  175. 
Ophidians,  123. 
Orders,  1 03. 
Ore,  56. 
Otozoum,  173. 
Oxyd  of  iron,  43,  57. 
Oxygen,  21. 

Pachyderms,  125. 
Paleontology,  132. 
Paleozoic  period,  characterized  by, 

214. 

Peat,  259. 
Pele's  hair,  252. 

Pentacrinus  Caput-Medusse,  111. 
Petrifactions,  134. 
Phaenogamous  plants,  91. 
Phosphorus,  24. 
Placoids,  121. 
Plan  revealed,  278. 
Plesiosaurus,  178. 
Plumbago,  23. 
Polished  quartz,  198. 
Polyps,  103. 
Pompeii,  241. 
Porphyry,  74. 
Potassium,  25. 
Pot-holes,  223. 

Pot-holes  in  Orange,  N.  H.,  224. 
Prase,  31. 

Preparation  for  man,  281. 
Pterodactyl,  179. 
Pteropods,  115. 
Pumice,  252. 
Pyroxene,  41. 

Quadrumana,  125. 


INDEX. 


319    . 


Quartz,  26. 

Quartz,  ferruginous,  32. 
Quartz,  granular,  33. 
Quartz  rock,  82. 
Quartz,  rose,  31. 
Quartz,  smoky,  32. 

Radiates,  103. 

Rains,  217. 

Raptores,  124. 

Rasores,  124. 

Rate  of  growth  of  coral  reefs,  266. 

Reef,  fringing,  261. 

Reef,  barrier,  261. 

Relative  age  of  mountains,  <fcc.,  214. 

Relative  age  of  veins  or  dikes,  80. 

Reptiles,  122. 

Rhizodonts,  123. 

Rivers,  218. 

Rivers  transporting  the  lands  to  the 

sea,  225. 

Rock  crystal,  28. 
Rocking  stones,  194. 
Rock  striated  by  a  glacier,  234. 
Rocks   which    compose    the    earth, 

65. 

Rodents,  125. 
Rotifera,  117. 
Rubellite,  53. 
Ruby,  50. 
Ruminants,  125. 
Rutile,  62. 

Sabrina,  250. 

Sandstone,  83. 

Sandwich  Islands,  251. 

Same   strata    dipping    in    opposite 

directions,  88. 
Sapphire,  50. 
Sard,  32. 
Sardonyx,  32. 
Saurians,  123. 
Scandinavia,  255. 
Scansores,  124. 
Scapolite,  46. 
Sea-anemone,  103. 
Sea-urchins,  112. 
Secondary  period,  characterized  by, 

214. 

27* 


Sections  of  coral  reefs  and  a  coral 

island,  264. 
Selenite,  42, 
Serpentine,  41. 
Shrimp,  118. 
Siberian  elephant,  207. 
Sigillaria,  160. 
Silicious  marl,  260. 
Silicon,  25. 

Silurian  acephals,  116. 
Silurian  cephalopods,  147. 
Silurian  coral,  145. 
Silurian  crinoids,  145. 
Silurian  gasteropods,  147. 
Silurian  system,  143. 
Silurian  trilobites,  148. 
Silver,  63. 
Skapter  Jokul,  245. 
Sodium,  25. 
Species,  103. 
Spinel,  50. 
Sponges,  *107. 
Springs,  218. 
Stalactites,  37. 
Stalagmite,  38. 
Star-fish,  111. 
Staurotide,  47. 
Stone  book,  173. 
Strata  folded,  88. 
Stratified  rocks,  65. 
Striated  quartz,  197. 
Strike,  85. 
Sulphur,  23. 
Sumbawa,  245. 
Sunstone,  35. 
Squids,  116. 
Syenite,  73. 
Synclinal  axis,  86. 

Table  Rock,  219. 

Tabular  view  of  stratified  and  un- 

stratified  rocks,  141. 
Talc,  41. 
Talcose  slate,  82. 
Temperature  of  the  earth,  18. 
Tertiary  acephals,  188. 
Tertiary  and  modern,  characterized 

by,  214. 
Tertiary  corals,  187. 


.     320 


INDEX. 


Tertiary  fishes,  190. 
Tertiary  gasteropods,  188. 
Tertiary  mammals,  191. 
Tertiary  system,  185. 
Terraces,  205. 
Tetrabranchiates,  115. 
Tetradecapods,  118. 
Thallophytes,  98. 
Thermal  springs,  252. 
Tides,  227. 
Tin  ore,  62. 
Topaz,  54. 
Tourmaline,  52. 
Trachyte,  77. 
Trap  rocks,  75. 
Tree  ferns,  97, 
Tremolite,  40. 
Trenton  Falls,  218. 
Tunicata,  114. 
Turtles,  123. 
Types,  103. 


Unconformable  strata,  86. 
Unstratified  rocks,  66. 

Valley  of  Switzerland,  234. 
Vegetable  kingdom,  91. 
Veins  or  dikes,  70. 
Verd-antique,  42. 
Vertebrates,  119. 

Vertical  movements  without  earth- 
quakes, 255. 
Vesuvius,  240. 
Volcanoes,  239. 

Waves,  226. 
Worms,  117. 

Zeolite  family,  51. 
Zinc,  60. 
Zircon,  56. 
Zoology,  14. 
Zoophytes,  104. 


THE  END. 


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from  Sir  WILLIAM  HAMILTON  and  others.  Edited  by  JAMES 
WALKER,  D.  D.,  President  of  Harvard  College.  Price  $1.31 

Stewart's   Philosophy  of  the  Active   and 

Moral  Powers  of  Man.  The  Philosophy  of  the  Active  and 
Moral  Powers  of  Man.  By  DUGALD  STEWART,  F.R.SS.  Lond. 
and  Ed.  Revised,  with  omissions  and  additions,  by  JAMES 
WALKER,  D.  D.,  President  of  Harvard  College.  Price  $1.31 

Mitchell's    First    Lessons   in   Geography. 

First  Lessons  in  Geography ;  for  young  children.  Designed 
as  an  Introduction  to  the  author's  Primary  Geography.  By  S. 
AUGUSTUS  MITCHELL,  author  of  a  Series  of  Geographical  Works. 
Illustrated  with  maps  and  numerous  engravings.  Price  $0.38 

Mitchell's  Primary  Geography.     An  Easy 

Introduction  to  the  study  of  Geography.  Designed  for  the 
instruction  of  children  in  Schools  and  Families.  Illustrated 
by  nearly  one  hundred  engravings  and  sixteen  colored  maps. 
By  S.  AUGUSTUS  MITCHELL.  ....  Price  $0.42 

Mitchell's  New  Intermediate   Geography. 

An  entirely  new  work.  The  maps  are  all  engraved  on  cop- 
per, in  the  best  manner,  and  brought  down  to  the  present 
date.  It  is  profusely  illustrated  with  beautiful  engravings, 
and  is  the  most  complete  quarto  Geography  ever  issued  in 
the  world.  .  .  .  .  .-  - .,»  •  •-.  Price  $1.1 2J 

Published  by  E.  H.  BUTLER  &  CO.,  Philadelphia. 


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